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NO. 

AN  ADDRESS— NATIONAL  BOARD  OF  FIRE 
UNDERWRITERS 

By  Frederic  C.  BuswEee  ------  1 

THE  NEW  STANDARD  FIRE  INSURANCE  POLICY 

OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK  (In  Effect  January  1,  1918) 

AS  COMPARED  WITH  ORIGINAL  STANDARD  POLICY 

By  David  Rumsey  -  --  --  --  2 

CLAY  WORKING  PLANTS 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INSPECTION 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  3 

CEMENT  PLANTS  AND  PLASTER  MILLS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  4 

THE  CHLORATES 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  5 

THE  FIRE  HAZARDS  OF  SOFT  COAL 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  6 

FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  FIRE  PROTECTION 

FOR  MANUFACTURING  PLANTS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  7 

COMBINATION  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  SYSTEMS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  ’  -  8 

WINDOW  GLASS  WORKS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  9 

PLATE,  ROLLED  AND  CATHEDRAL  GLASS  WORKS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  10 

GLASS  WORKS  OTHER  THAN  PLATE  OR  WINDOW  GLASS 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  11 

THE  INSPECTOR  AND  THE  INSURED 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  -  --  --  --  12 

FIRE  INSURANCE  ENGINEERING 

By  F.  M.  Griswoed  ------- 


13 


Address  of 


Mr.  Frederic  C.  Buswell 


President 

The  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters 


Before 

The  National  Association  of  Insurance 

Agents 

Louisville,  Ky.,  October  16,  1919 

fpsa) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


THE  JOURNAL’  OF  COMM1 


LLOYDS  EXCESS 
COVERS  CRITICISED 

SPRINGFIELD  WARNS  OF  EF¬ 
FECT  ON  AGENCY  BUSINESS, 


Vico  President  Bulkley  Says  That 
Treaties  of  Hartford  and  Conti¬ 
nental  Give  Them  Undue  P acui¬ 
ties— Premiums  Going  Abroad. 


The  excess  covers  arranged  bY  some 
of  the  large  American  companies  with 
Lloyds’  London  underwriters  are  rhade 
the  subject  of  criticism  by  Vice  Presl- 
dent  Geerge  G.  Bulkley  of  the  Spring- 
field  Fixe  &-  Marine  in.  a  circular  letter 
to  the  company’s  field  men.''  This  sub¬ 
ject  was  briefly  mentioned  in  The  Jour¬ 
nal  of  Commerce  a  few  weeks  ago. 
Vice  President  Bulkloy’s  main  objec¬ 
tion  Is  the  undue  writing  facilities  these; 
treaties  with  unauthorized  concerns  gijtve 
the  companies  having  them  and  the  ef¬ 
fect  on  the  agency  business  throughout 
the  country.  He  says: 

"To  Our  Field  Men:  We  are  led  to 
inquire  if  you  are  noticing  any  attempt 
by  the  Hartford  Fijo  and  the  Con¬ 
tinental  and  their  allied  companies  to 
make  a  drive  for  large  lines  on  desir¬ 
able  risks.  Both  the  Hartford  and  the 
Continental  have,  we  are  led  to  think* 
secured  at  Lloyds  certain* excess  rein¬ 
surance  cover  which  gives  them  fa¬ 
cilities  of  somewhere  between  $200,000 

and  $500,000  on  a  single  risk.  We  have 
been  asked  in  several  cases  to  name 
lines  to  meet  authorisations  given  by 
the  two  companies  mentioned.  Not 
long  ago  we  received  a  communication 
from  one  of  our  loyal  agents  which  we 
quote  below  for  your  information: 

"You  have  probably  noticed  in  a 
recent  issue  of  The  Journal  of  Com¬ 
merce  a  statement  of  a  new  plan  of 
reinsurance  about  to  be  effected  be¬ 
tween  an  American  company  and 
some  British  underwriters.  This 
scheme  was  explained  to  me  in  some 
detailf  and  I  see  in  it  the  first  step 
for  a  drive  to  clean  up  the  small 
American  companies. 

"The  company  making  this  ar¬ 
rangement  is  the  Hartford,  and  al¬ 
ready  we  have  been  quoted  lines 
upon  some  of  our  brokerage  business 
that  indicates  the  drift  of  things. 

“The  reinsurance  arrangement  cuts 
off  all  specific  ceding  and  practically 
does  away  with  the  necessity  of 
maintaining  a  reinsurance  depart¬ 
ment  at  the  home  office. 

"The  Hartford’s  contract,  as  ex¬ 
plained  to  me,  is  that  the  under¬ 
writers  take  all  the  excess  over  the 
Hartford’s  net  line  for  from  ten  to 
one  hundred  times,  depending  upon 
the  character  of  the  risk  and  the 
Hartford’s  loss  experience  on  the 
class.  For  instance,  I  am-'  offered  the 
opportunity  to  place  the  entire  in¬ 
surance  on  the. .  mills  in  one 

policy,  the  requirement  in  this  case 
being  $200,000,  subject  to  one  fire, 
which  Js  ample.  We  understand  that 
upon  high  class  manufacturing  propi 
erty  of  modern,  construction  the 
limit  la  $2,1)00,000. 

"You  can  see  at  a  glance  where 
the  American  reinsurance  business  *is 
going  to  get.  hit.  and  where  the 
smaller  company  -will  stand  in  an 
agency.  Without  question  this  is  the 
most  ambitious  scheme  for  ‘killing 
off  competition’  that  has  been  de¬ 
veloped,  and  is  the  first  step  toward 
'playing  a  lone  hand.’ 

"Many  company  managers  will  de¬ 
velop  a  crop  of  gray  hair  if  the 
agents  take  . to  it  as  It  is  hoped  they 
will, 

"If  the  Hartford  and  the  Continental 
are  able  to  malce  this -excess  cover  a  suc¬ 
cess,  companies  such  as  the  Springfield 
without,  a  .simitar  reinsurance, 'cover  are 
bound  to  meet  with  much  resistance  in1 
their  agency  operatiotn-r.  - .  ’■ 

"Many  agents  will  riot  jbe  feo  unwise  as 
to  tie  up  the  coven  on'  certain  of  their 
large  risks  in  one  company,  Others, 
however,  in  order  to  make  a  s&ving  in 
office  routine  will,  we  do  not  doubt*-  take 
advantage  of  what  seems  to  be  a 'good 
opportunity  to  write  one  policy  instead 
of  fifteen  or  twenty.  The  arrangement 
such  as  is  enjoyed,  by  the  companies 
mentioned  is  inexpensive  to  operate  at 
the  head  office  arid  therefore  they  are 
in  a  position  to  make  a  large  saving  in 
the  way  of  clerical  hire. 

"There  are  many  disadvantages  from 
our  viewpoint,  but  our  chief  Interest  at 
this  time  is  to  learn  if  our  business  is 
being  attacked  by  the  Continental  and 
the  Hartford  through  the  facility  which 
they  are  able  to  offer  to  our  agents. 

"If,  as  you  make  your  rounds,  any 
of  our  agents  discuss  this  subject  with 
you  It  might  be  well  for  you  to  under-  -i 
stand  that  a  very  small  percentage  of 
the*  premium  assumed  by  the  Hartford 
and  the  Continental  on  large  risks  is 
retained  by  them.  As,  for  instance,  if 
it  is  a  $500,000  line,  $475,000  automatical¬ 
ly  is  taken  over  by  the  London  Lloyds  . 
through  the  excess  cover.  It  seems  to  us 
that  those  of  our  agents  who  have  the 
interests  of  American  institutions  at 
heart  will  not  encourage  practices  which 
will  send  to  foreign  countries  a  large 
portion  of  the  premiums  Which  they  pro¬ 
duce,  to  he  taken  over  by  the  same  un¬ 
derwriters  which  are  issuing  in  this 
country  individual  Lloyds  contracts  much 
to  the  disadvantage  of  local  agents.  -It 
also  seems  to  us  that,  the  field  men  bf 
companies  not  having  foreign  excess* 
cover  can  ao  much  to  make  this  form  of 
so-called  reinsurance  protection  uftpopCK1 
lar  -with  local  agents/’ 


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3  COUNT  myself  fortunate  indeed  that  it  has  fallen  to  me 
to  bring  this  message  of  greeting  and  good  will  because 
in  your  membership  and  in  this  audience  there  are  so 
many  with  whom  I  have  such  close  friendly  relations,  business 
and  personal. 

You  have  already  been  informed  of  the  appointment  by 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  of  a  standing  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Conference  with  your  Association  and  it  is  most 
gratifying  to  know  that  the  significance  of  that  event  is  fully 
appreciated.  It  does  not  mean  that  we  have  differences  that 
require  adjustment  or  that  either  you  or  we  are  apprehensive 
of  controversie's  or  contentions  in  the  future,  but  rather,  I 
think,-  it  is  a  recognition  of  a  certain  community  of  interest, 
privilege  and  duty  in  which  a  point  of  contact  is  needed  if  we 
are  to  utilize  all  our  energies  and  influence  to  the  best  ad¬ 
vantage. 

Our  two  organizations  deal  with  different  phases  of  the 
same  general  subject  and  it  is  in  the  hope  that  your  efforts 
and  ours  may  be  better  co-ordinated,  and  that  as  we  serve  the 
public  better  we  shall  the  better  serve  our  own  interests  that 
we  are  here  to-day. 

At  the  outset  it  will  perhaps  be  well  to  make  clear  to  you 
precisely  what  the  National  Board  is ;  what  its  activities  are 
as  well  as  its  limitations.  It  is  a  voluntary  organization  of 
stock  fire  insurance  companies,  fifty-three  years  old  and  at 
present  its  membership  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  com¬ 
prises  practically  all  of  the  companies  of  any  importance 
doing  a  general  as  distinguished  from  a  purely  local  business. 
In  its  early  days  it  attempted  to  regulate  all  details  of  the 
business,  but  after  a  turbulent  experience  extending  over  a 
period  of  some  ten  or  twelve  years,  all  control  over  rates  and 
practices  was  abandoned  in  April,  1876,  and  ten  years  later 
the  dead  letter  of  authority  over  commissions  was  definitely 
renounced. 

For  more  than  two  decades  following  this  action  the 
Board’s  chief  function  consisted  of  the  preparation  of  statist¬ 
ical  tables  which  comprised  the  principal  feature  of  the  an¬ 
nual  reports. 

It  will  be  observed  that  long  before  any  other  line  of 
business  thought  of  organizing  a  trust,  and  indeed  before  that 
word  was  ever  used  in  its  present  opprobrious  sense,  the  fire 
underwriters  had  organized,  operated  and  abandoned  theirs, 
and  for  more  than  forty-three  years  there  has  been  no  such 
thing  in  the  fire  insurance  business  in  this  country. 


One  of  the  most  interesting  things  in  the  history  of  the 
National  Board  is  the  steady  and  apparently  inevitable  way 
in  which  its  activities  have  come  to  be  more  and  more  of  a 
public  service  character.  This,  I  am  frank  to  say,  was  not 
originally  intended,  in  fact,  it  was  a  matter  of  years  before 
we  ourselves  became  aware  of  the  meaning  of  the  changes 
which  were  taking  place,  but  we  are  proud  and  happy  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  the  fire  insurance  profession  has  led  all  other  great 
business  interests  in  the  United  States  in  completing  the  cycle 
of  this  evolution.  In  other  words,  more'  than  a  generation 
ago,  our  business  definitely  and  finally  learned  the  lesson  that 
business  measures,  which  were  even  unconsciously  oppressive, 
of  the  public,  were  “bad  business”  for  the  companies  and  that 
conversely,  public  interest  and  underwriting  interest  were 
synonymous  terms.  This  may  sound  like  mere  assertion,  but 
those  who  have'  taken  the  time  to  study  the  somewhat  check¬ 
ered  history  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  will 
realize  its  absolute  accuracy. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Convention  of  Insurance  Commis¬ 
sioners  in  Hartford  last  month  one  of  the  members  com¬ 
plained  that  the  companies  had  no  central  organization  with 
which  the  state  officials  could  confer  and  which  could  commit 
its  membership  on  matters  of  rate — overlooking  for  the 
moment  the  provisions  of  many  very  explicit  anti-trust  and 
anti-compact  statutes. 

In  passing  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  remark  that  the 
underwriters  have  sometimes  wished  that  the  National  organ-: 
ization  or  Conference  of  State  Insurance  officials  had  some 
such  control  over  its  own  members,  but  no  doubt  they  wish 
so,  too,  and  it  is  through  no  fault  of  theirs  that  they  haven’t. 

The  evolution  of  our  business  offered  from  time  to  time 
opportunities  for  usefulness  which  the  Board  was  not  slow 
to  improve  until  at  the  present  time  it  has  become  a  service 
institution  of  value  not  only  to  its  members  but  to  the  public. 

It  holds  but  one  meeting  annually,  its  work  being  con¬ 
ducted  under  the  direction  of  the  following  Committees,  whose 
names  suggest  the  nature  of  their  functions  : 

Executive 

Actuarial  Bureau 

Adjustments 

Clauses  and  Forms 

Construction  of  Buildings 

Finance 

Fire  Prevention  and  Engineering  Standards 

Incendiarism  and  Arson 

Laws 

Membership 
Public  Relations 
Statistics  and  Origin  of  Fires 
Uniform  Accounting. 


2 


The  working  force  consists  of  the  General  Manager  and 
office,  and  special  staffs,  and  the  general  office  in  New  York 
is  a  very  busy  place,  employing  at  present  one  hundred  and 
forty-eight  people. 

It  would  require  more  time  than  you  can  give  me  to  go 
into  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  work  of  these  Committee's, 
but  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  there  is  no  privately  sup¬ 
ported  organization  in  the  country  doing  more  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  life  and  property. 

For  example,  we  are  maintaining  Fire  Prevention  En¬ 
gineering  Service  in  three  important  fields.  Our  Committee 
on  Fire  Prevention  and  Engineering  Standards  maintains  field 
parties  of  trained  engineers  who  are  constantly  engaged  in 
trying  to  eliminate  conflagration  hazards  in  American  cities. 

Our  Committee  on  Construction  of  Buildings  reviews 
most  of  the  building  codes  prepared  by  the  different  cities 
and  is  laboring  constantly  to  elevate  their  standards. 

Our  great  Underwriters’  Laboratories  in  Chicago,  with 
a  branch  in  New  York,  employ  their  large  staff  of  technical 
experts  and  their  re'ally  wonderful  laboratory  equipment  in 
tests  of  all  devices,  materials  and  processes  that  directly,  or 
indirectly,  affect  the  fire  hazard. 

On  the  personal  side  our  committee  on  Incendiarism  and 
Arson  is  rendering  assistance  to  fire  marshals  and  other  state 
and  city  authorities,  and  through  its  own  staff  of  investigators 
is  seeking  to  make  the  crime  of  Arson  unprofitable — a  work 
in  which  the  local  agents  can  and  do  co-operate  very  effec¬ 
tively. 

Our  Committee  on  Public  Relations  is  conducting  an 
extensive  educational  work  in  fire  prevention  which  includes 
the  publication  of  a  widely  circulated  monthly  paper,  the  pro¬ 
motion  of  fire  prevention  courses  in  thousands  of  school 
rooms  and  a  great  variety  of  other  details  all  calculated  to 
bring  the  public  to  an  appreciation  of  the  need  of  careful 
habits  and  precautionary  measures. 

Many  of  your  members  receive  the  publications  of  this 
Committee,  and  we  shall  be  pleased  to  add  to  our  mailing  list 
the  names  of  all  others  who  de'sire  to  have  them. 

Even  upon  mere  technical  lines  the  public  interest  is  a 
constantly  dominating  factor. 

Our  Actuarial  Bureau,  with  its  eighty-six  employees  and 
its  equipment  of  classification  and  tabulating  machinery  and 
its  millions  of  record  cards  in  files,  is  making  such  a  scientific 
study  of  fire  statistics  and  causes  as  has  never  previously  been 
attempted. 

Many  of  you  are  familiar  with  the  work  of  our  Commit¬ 
tee  on  Laws  which  has  so  often  and  so  successfully  defended 
your  interests  and  ours  no  less  than  those  of  the  public  against 
misguided  attacks  in  the  form  of  hostile  legislation.  Under 
the  direction  of  this  Committee,  the  tax  laws  and  other  stat- 


3 


utes  are  construed  and  legislation  affecting  the  business  is 
watched,  and  when  necessary  it  represents  you  and  us  at 
hearings  on  measures  proposed  for  enactment. 

Some  very  valuable  assistance  in  this  work  has  been  ren¬ 
dered  by  local  agents  who,  as  constituents,  neighbors  and 
friends  of  influential  legislators  have  introduced  and  secured 
for  us  an  audience,  enabling  us  to  present  our  views  to  much 
better  advantage  and  more  effectively  than  any  stranger  could 
hope  to  do. 

Many  of  you  recall  repeated  and  determined  efforts  to  put 
the  Federal  Government  in  the  fire  insurance  business,  which 
were  resisted  by  all  the  legitimate  influences  we  could  enlist 
and  defeated  with  the  greatest  difficulty. 

Local  agents  were  very  helpful  in  this  work  and  I  am 
glad  of  this  opportunity  to  testify  to  the  great  value  of  the 
services  they  rendered.  When  we  consider  the  calamitous 
results  of  Government  operation  of  railroads,  express,  tele¬ 
graph  and  telephone  companies  and,  for  one  illustration,  the 
unsatisfactory  handling  of  claims  for  lost  parcel  post  ship¬ 
ments  insured  by  the  Government,  we  cannot  escape  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  in  averting  this  danger  we  rendered  a  very  real 
service  to  the  public  as  well  as  to  ourselves.  In  this  place 
I  am  sure  it  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon  this  subject,  but 
it  is  worth  considerable  to  know  that  in  case  of  need  the  un¬ 
derwriters  and  the  agents  will  be  found  standing  together  to 
resist  and  resent  any  attack  upon  their  business  from  what¬ 
ever  source  it  may  come. 

And  now  I  cannot  let  this  occasion  pass  without  calling 
attention  to  what  seem  to  be  the  peculiar  responsibilities  of 
the  present  hour,  for  the  fire  insurance  profession  from  top 
to  bottom  has  become  conscious  of  a  new  and  important 
aspect  of  its  duty  to  the  public ;  namely,  that  of  an  organized 
and  systemized  protective  relation  when  the  nation’s  interests 
are  in  peril. 

You  are  all  familiar  with  the  war  service  which  began 
upon  March  26,  1917,  ten  days  before  the  actual  declaration 
of  war  and  lasted  until  some  weeks  after  the  signing  of  the 
armistice.  It  is,  therefore1,  not  necessary  to  recall  the  various 
forms  of  activity  whose  large  value  has  been  attested  by  many 
letters  from  various  government  officials.  I  wish  to  state 
without  reservation  that  the  splendid  co-operation  received 
from  thousands  of  local  agents  throughout  the  country  was 
one  of  the  strongest  factors  in  achieving  these  results.  The 
fact  remains,  however,  that  such  a  record  once  established, 
becomes  a  standard  by  which  future  achievements  must  be 
judged  and  in  the  light  of  which  present  plans  must  be  made. 

We  have  all  of  us,  local  agents,  special  agents,  company 
officials  and  National  Board  alike,  learned  that  the  country’s 
emereency  recognizes  no  divergent  lines  of  individual  inter¬ 
est,  but  calls  us  unitedly  into  the  common  service. 


4 


So  much  for  a  word  of  retrospect.  But  now  let  it  be  O 
noted  that  the  national  emergency,  which  we  believed  to  have  • 
passed  with  the  signing  of  the  armistice,  has  merely  taken  on 
a  new  aspect  and  has  reappeared  in  even  more  disquieting 
form.  This  form  seems  to  be  that  of  a  widespread  and  de¬ 
termined  effort  to  destroy  the  principles  of  democracy  and 
to  undermine  the  moral  standards  upon  which  these  principles 
are  based. 

You  will,  I  know,  acquit  me  of  any  purpose  to  pose  as 
an  alarmist.  The  people  of  this  nation  in  vast  majority  I 
believe  to  be  industrious,  upright,  intelligent  and  genuinely 
patriotic.  No  one  can  question  this  fact  after  seeing  the 
response  which  was  made  to  all  appeals  during  our  nineteen 
months  of  warfare,  but  you  will  appreciate  the  difference 
which  exists  between  a  majority  that  has  been  dissolved  into 
its  original  units  and  a  minority  that  is  active,  purposeful 
and  unscrupulous. 

So  long  as  the  United  States  consisted  of  thousands  of 
different  groups  and  interests,  each  intent  upon  its  own 
affairs,  Germany  thought  us  to  be  negligible  in  warfare.  It 
was  not  until  these  groups  and  interests  developed  a  common 
purpose  and  a  mutually  co-operative  plan  that  the  nation’s 
strength  was  made  effective.  At  that  time  our  citizens  ceased 
to  regard  themselves  separately  as  Americans  and  thought  of 
themselves  unitedly  as  “America,”  which  is  to  say  that  they 
ceased  to  focus  their  attention  so  exclusively  upon  the  special 
rights  and  privileges  which  are  supposed  to  inhere  in  Amer¬ 
ican  citizenship  and  became  conscious  of  the  tremendous 
responsibility  which  the  great  national  unit  “America”  owes 
to  humanity.  It  was  that  change  of  viewpoint  from  the  sep¬ 
arate  to  the  collective  and  from  privileges  to  duties  which 
made  our  nation  irresistible  in  its  great  task,  for  it  was  in  a 
sense  a  substitution  of  spiritual  standards  for  those  which 
were  merely  material  or  political. 

None  of  us  had  ever  seen  nor  even  imagined  a  machine 
so  mighty,  so  complicated,  but  yet  working  with  such  single 
effectiveness  as  that  into  which  our  nation  had  become  organ¬ 
ized  by  the  close  of  the  war.  Then  on  November  11,  1918, 
the  hostilities  ce'ased  and  straightway  the  need  for  a  collective 
purpose  seemed  to  have  disappeared.  The  people  did  not 
consciously  become  less  patriotic ;  they  merely  ceased  to  be 
dominated  by  patriotic  thoughts  and  began  to  return  quite 
naturally  and  inevitably  into  their  old  channels  of  action  and 
interest. 

The  point  now  to  be  noted  is  that  all  lines  of  separation 
must  again  be  forgotten  and  unity  of  patriotic  purpose  must 
again  be  restored  in  the  face  of  a  new  danger  which  is  not 
less  menacing  than  the  one  we  have  passed.  This  danger 
comes  from  within,  not  from  without.  It  is  not  centralized 
in  a  great  military  autocracy  which  can  be  combatted  by  rec¬ 
ognized  methods  of  warfare,  but  is  found  in  an  amazing  dis- 


5 


semination  of  poisonous  ideas  and  disintegrating  doctrines 
whose  results  are  being  made  manifest  in  a  spirit  of  disorder 
and  violence  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

For  a  few  months  following  the  close  of  the  war,  we  were 
so  filled  with  optimism  and  with  plans  for  reconstruction  that 
we  were  hardly  conscious  of  the  extent  of  this  new  menace. 
We  were  inclined  to  regard  it  as  merely  a  spasmodic  example 
of  disorganization  which  follows  a  great  conflict,  and  to  feel 
that  it  was  not  more  than  a  part  of  the  nation’s  convalescence. 
This  attitude  of  easy  optimism  permitted  the  spread  of  the 
danger  which  it  ignored,  until  to-dav,  we  are  forced  to  awake 
from  our  dreams  and  to  leave  our  Fool’s  Paradise. 

We  now  can  no  longer  question  the  existence  of  forces 
of  destruction  and  disintegration,  definitely  organized,  well 
financed,  working  industriously  and  insidiously  to  undermine 
everything  which  we  hold  of  value  in  our  American  life  and 
utilizing  their  immunity  to  push  their  propaganda  with  ut¬ 
most  diligence.  This  is  not  a  situation  which  will  auto- 
matically  correct  itself.  It  must  be  combatted  just  as  def¬ 
initely,  just  as  systematically  and  in  a  spirit  of  just  as  patriotic 
determination  as  that  which  led  America  into  the  World  War. 

The  great,  sound,  but  disorganized  and  careless  majority 
must  revive  its  organization  and  become  reanimated  with  its 
patriotic  spirit.  The  forces  of  construction  must  go  to  war 
with  the  forces  of  destruction  and  must  master  them  before 
the  danger  has  been  allowed  to  spread  farther. 

Whatever  our  several  relations,  we  are  here  together  as 
fire  insurance  men,  and  just  as  fire  insurance  men  led  the  Na¬ 
tion  in  their  organized  response  to  the  call  of  service  in  the 
spring  of  1917,  shall  we  not  now  be  the  first  among  the  coun¬ 
try’s  business  interests  to  recognize  and  to  combat  this  new 
menace  to  public  safety? 

In  considering  the  subject  we  are  struck  with  the  fact 
that  the  new  doctrines  are  not  only  anti-American  in  char¬ 
acter,  but  are  anti-American  in  propagation  as  well.  Their 
exponents  are  largely  those  of  foreign  birth,  and,  in  many 
cases,  of  foreign  citizenship.  Their  most  fertile'  field  is  found 
in  the  great  mass  of  illiterate  immigration  which  poured  into 
this  country  during  the  decade  and  a  half  before  the  war  and 
in  the  illiterate  portion  of  our  native  born  population.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  a  large  part  of  its  support  is 
drawn  from  foreign  sources  and  its  most  marked  characteristic 
is  a  hatred  for  orderly  liberty  and  for  all  that  make’s  up  Amer¬ 
ican  traditions  and  ideals. 

The  way  to  fight  darkness  is  by  light ;  the  way  to  fight 
ignorance  is  by  means  of  education ;  the  way  to  fight  anti- 
Americanism  is  by  a  great  campaign  of  Americanization  that 
shall  be  absolutely  systematic,  efficient  and  thorough. 

The  time  has  now  come  when  all  the  forms  of  organiza¬ 
tion  in  this  country  which  represent  sanity  and  progress  must 


6 


enlist  themselves  in  the  work  of  safeguarding  America  against 
the  impairment  of  her  ideals. 

The  fire  insurance  profession  should  again  appear  in  the 
van  of  patriotic  activity  and  I  can  think  of  no  better  service 
that  your  great  association  can  render  to  its  country  than  that 
of  promoting  the  constructive  spirit  of  active,  militant  patriot¬ 
ism  in  all  the  states  and  towns  where  it  has  membership. 
This  spirit  must  find  expression  according  to  the  local  condi¬ 
tions  which  it  finds,  but  it  should  be  based  upon  a  vigilant, 
outspoken  and  uncompromising  Americanism. 

Fire  insurance  men  are  conservationists  whose  training 
and  instincts  naturally  oppose  every  menace  to  the  public 
safety.  In  the  new  emergency,  as  in  the  one  that  has  just 
passed,  let  us  show  our  ability  to  see  clearly  and  to  act 
promptly,  energetically  and  unitedly  for  the  land  we  love. 


7 


t .  v ^  t*  *  ?  i 


2 


The  New  Standard 

Fire  Insurance  Policy 

of  the  State  of  New  York 

(In  Effect  January  1,  1918) 

As  Compared  with  the  Original  Standard 

Policy 

AN  ADDRESS 


DELIVERED  BEFORE 

The  Insurance  Society 

of  New  York 


MR.  DAVID  RUMSEY 


[pSll 


Copyrighted  1920,  The  Insurance  Society  of  New  York 

(Reprinted  by  permission  of  The  Insurance 
Society  of  New  York.) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


3 


The  New  Standard  Fire  Policy 


The  fire  insurance  policy  is  probably  the  most  important 
contract  in  the  world,  and  the  New  York  standard  form  is 
a  document  upon  which  the  safety  of  practically  all  property 
values  in  this  country  is  dependent.  While  there  are  other 
forms  of  fire  policies  in  use  in  the  United  States,  the  New 
York  standard  is  the  legalized  contract  in  twenty-six  states 
and  serves  as  the  foundation  for  establishing,  and  the  guide 
for  modification  of  fire  insurance  contracts  in  use  throughout 
the  rest  of  the  country.  The  New  York  standard  form  was 
established  by  law  in  1886.  It  was  created  at  the  insistence 
of  the  Legislature,  but  was  prepared  by  the  Committee  on 
Laws  and  Legislation  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Under¬ 
writers.  The  interesting  history  of  its  origin  by  Mr.  Ken¬ 
nedy,  one  of  the  members  of  the  Committee  which  drafted 
the  original  New  York  standard  policy,  was  presented  to 
this  society  in  an  address  delivered  in  November,  1911.  I 
think  it  would  be  impossible  to  praise  too  highly  the  work 
done  in  the  preparation  of  the  original  New  York  standard 
form.  The  difficulty  of  formulating  a  single  contract  to  be 
applicable  to  the  vast  number  of  varying  conditions  of  prop¬ 
erty  insurance  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  The  success¬ 
ful  accomplishment  of  a  most  difficult  purpose  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  the  New  York  standard  fire  policy  was  con¬ 
tinued  in  use  without  change  for  thirty-two  years,  and  dur¬ 
ing  that  time  comparatively  few  of  its  provisions  have  been 
nullified  by  the  courts  or  disregarded  as  obsolete. 

The  original  New  York  standard  form  was  a  liberal 
document,  judged  by  the  standards  of  the  time  in  which  it 
was  prepared.  The  fact  remains,  however,  that  with  the 
passage  of  time — with  the  broadening  and  uplifting  of  busi¬ 
ness  standards  and  the  increased  public  impatience  with 
technicalities,  the  old  contract  became,  in  many  respects, 
archaic  and  illiberal.  It  was  prepared  in  an  age  which  ante- 


1 


dated  the  agitation  against  capital  and  trusts.  The  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  insurance  companies  were  jealous  of  their  right 
to  impose  their  views  upon  the  insurance  business.  They 
intended  to  be  just  to  their  customers  but  they  also  intended 
that  in  case  of  doubt,  the  companies'  interests  should  not  be 
imperiled  and  this  solicitude  for  the  companies’  interests 
resulted  in  certain  provisions  of  the  policy  contract  which, 
tested  by  modern  standards,  are,  in  certain  cases  unfair  and 
in  other  cases  unworkable. 

The  determination  to  revise  the  New  York  standard 
policy  took  official  form  in  the  year  1913  when  the  New  York 
Legislature  adopted  a  joint  resolution  directing  the  Superin¬ 
tendent  of  Insurance  to  submit  to  the  National  Convention 
of  Insurance  Commissioners  a  request  for  the  appointment 
of  a  committee  to  investigate  the  necessity  for  changes  and 
to  recommend  to  the  Legislature  such  changes  as,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Committee,  might  be  necessary.  The  Commit¬ 
tee  of  Insurance  Commissioners  was  composed  of  Mr.  Emmet 
of  New  York,  Mr.  Young  of  North  Carolina,  Mr.  Johnson 
of  Pennsylvania,  Mr.  Mansfield  of  Connecticut  and  Mr. 
Ekern  of  Wisconsin.  They  requested  the  cooperation  in  their 
work  of  Mr.  Shallcross,  now  of  the  North  British  &  Mer¬ 
cantile  Insurance  Company,  and  myself  acting  for  The  Con¬ 
tinental  Insurance  Company.  As  the  work  progressed  it 
was  done,  not  only  in  conference  with  the  Insurance  Com¬ 
missioners  Committee,  but  with  the  Committee  on  Laws  and 
Legislation  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and 
with  a  number  of  more  specialized  committees,  such  as  in¬ 
formal  conferences  of  agents,  brokers  and  adjusters,  and  the 
work  continued  intermittently  for  about  four  years  before 
the  new  standard  form  was  completed  and  enacted  into  law 
in  the  year  1917,  the  new  policy  to  take  effect  January  1, 
1918. 

The  new  policy  contains  upon  its  first  page  what  may 
be  termed  the  contract  of  insurance  reduced  to  its  simplest 
form,  relegating  all  of  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  incidental 
provisions  to  the  second  page.  These  become  incorporated 
into  the  contract  by  reference  thereto  in  the  main  contract. 

The  contract,  stripped  of  all  qualifying  clauses,  may  be 
defined  as  follows : 

The  company  agrees  to  insure,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
indemnify  against  loss  or  damage  by  fire  to  the  extent  of  the 
value  of  the  property. 

This  broad  undertaking  is  subject  to  three  vital  limita¬ 
tions,  namely,  that  the  liability  of  the  company  shall  not 
exceed  either — 

(1)  The  value  of  the  property,  or 

(2)  The  replacement  or  repair  cost,  or 

(3)  The  amount  of  the  insurance  named  in  the  policy. 


2 


The  value  of  the  property,  as  used  in  the  contract,  is 
more  precisely  defined  as  meaning  the  “actual  cash”  value 
“at  the  time  of  loss  or  damage.”  Thus,  the  idea  of  speculative 
or  future  value  is  eliminated  and  the  idea  of  any  fictitious 
valuation  founded  upon  the  relation  of  the  owner  to  the  prop¬ 
erty  is  negatived.  In  ascertaining  value,  “proper  deductions 
for  depreciation”  must  be  made. 

The  cost  of  repair  or  replacement,  which  is  referred  to 
in  the  policy,  is  subject  to  three  qualifications: 

(1)  The  replacement  is  to  be  with  material  of  like  kind 
and  quality ; 

(2)  Its  cost  is  to  be  estimated  on  the  basis  of  a  reason¬ 
able  time  to  make  the  repair  or  replacement. 

(3)  In  estimating  the  cost  of  replacement,  no  allowance 
shall  be  made  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  ordinances  or  laws 
require  reconstruction  or  repair  in  a  manner  or  with  material 
more  expensive  than  that  which  was  destroyed. 

Neither  value  nor  replacement  cost  shall  include  com¬ 
pensation  for  loss  resulting  from  interruption  of  business  or 
manufacture. 

A  contract  of  insurance  is  a  contract  of  indemnity.  This 
has  been  established  by  a  uniform  line  of  judicial  decisions 
founded  upon  sound  reasoning.  It  is  only  as  insurance  effects 
indemnity  that  it  can  be  economically  justified  and  freed  from 
the  objections  which  would  attach  to  gambling  contracts 
which  are  against  the  public  policy  and  void.  It  was  with 
this  view  that  many  of  those  who  were  concerned  with  the 
drafting  of  the  new  form  proposed  to  substitute  for  the  words 
“does  insure”  the  words  “does  hereby  agree  to  indemnify,” 
but  the  proposed  change  of  phraseology  was  considered  to 
be  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  many  decisions  to  the  effect  that 
the  word  “insure”  is  practically  synonymous  with  the  word 
“indemnify.”  This  idea  of  indemnity  and  indemnity  only  is, 
however,  expressive  of  the  guiding  principle  of  a  valid  insur¬ 
ance  contract.  It  explains  all  of  the  limitations  upon  the 
company’s  liability  and  the  qualifications  of  the  phrases  used 
as  set  forth  in  the  main  contract  of  the  new  form.  It  shows 
that  the  purpose  of  the  contract  is  to  restore  the  insured  to 
the  position  in  which  he  was  prior  to  the  loss  up  to  the  limit 
of  the  indemnity  which  he  has  paid  for  (namely,  the  amount 
of  the  insurance)  but  that  the  values  which  shall  be  restored 
are  only  actual  or  commercial  values,  and  that  a  proper  limit 
of  indemnity  restricts  insurance  to  cost  of  replacement  of  the 
thing  destroyed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  condition  in 
which  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  loss. 

The  first  page  of  the  new  form,  viewed  as  a  whole,  is  a 
contract  of  indemnity,  and  many  perplexing  questions  will 
be  solved  wisely  in  the  future,  as  they  have  been  in  the  past, 
by  bearing  in  mind  that  such  is  the  meaning  and  the  only 
legitimate  scope  of  a  policy  of  fire  insurance. 


3 


The  new  form  runs  to  the  insured  “and  legal  representa¬ 
tives.”  This  is  a  substitute  for  the  following  language  in  the 
old  form:  “Wherever  in  this  policy  the  word  ‘insured’  occurs, 
it  shall  be  held  to  include  the  legal  representative  of  the 
insured.” 

The  new  form  defines  the  insurance  as  covering  “to  the 
extent  of  the  actual  cash  value  (ascertained  with  proper 
deductions  for  depreciation)  of  the  property  at  the  time  of 
loss  or  damage.”  This  is  a  substitute  for  the  following  lan¬ 
guage  of  the  old  form : 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  beyond  the  actual  cash  value 
of  the  property  at  the  time  any  loss  or  damage  occurs,  and  the  loss 
or  damage  shall  be  ascertained  or  estimated  according  to  such  actual 
cash  value,  with  proper  deduction  for  depreciation  however  caused. — 
(Lines  1  and  2.) 

Thus  the  undertaking  of  the  company  becomes  expressed 
in  the  affirmative  instead  of  in  the  negative  as  formerly.  The 
construction  of  the  old  policy  and  the  new  should  be  the  same, 
for  under  the  old  policy  the  obligation  of  the  company  was 
held  to  extend  to  the  value  of  the  property,  subject  to  the 
other  limitations  of  the  contract,  although  it  was  based  alto¬ 
gether  upon  the  judicial  interpretation  of  the  word  “insure.” 

The  new  form  limits  the  insurance  as  follows :  “But  not 
exceeding  the  amount  which  it  would  cost  to  repair  or  replace 
the  same  with  material  of  like  kind  and  quality  within  a  rea¬ 
sonable  time  after  such  loss  or  damage,  without  allowance 
for  any  increased  cost  of  repair  or  reconstruction  by  reason 
of  any  ordinance  or  law  regulating  construction  or  repair.” 

This  is  an  adaptation  of  the  following  in  the  old  form : 

and  shall  in  no  event  exceed  what  it  would  then  cost  the  insured  to 
repair  or  replace  the  same  with  material  of  like  kind  and  quality; 

in  line  2  and  also  the  following : 

nor,  beyond  the  actual  value  destroyed  by  fire,  for  loss  occasioned  by 
ordinance  or  law  regulating  construction  or  repair  of  buildings ; 

in  lines  41  and  42. 

As  a  matter  of  form,  the  clause  which  was  at  lines  41 
and  42  should  follow  the  clause  which  it  qualifies  instead  of 
being  forty  lines  removed  from  it. 

As  a  matter  of  substance,  the  omission  of  the  words  “the 
insured”  in  old  line  number  2  renders  it  unnecessary  in  the 
future  to  consider  the  relation  of  the  insured  to  the  cost  of 
repair  or  replacement.  Hereafter  the  subject  will  be  treated 
upon  an  absolute  rather  than  a  relative  basis.  If  the  insured 
is  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  able  to  repair  or  replace  at  less 
than  market  cost,  that  circumstance  would  not  necessarily 
be  available  to  the  company  to  decrease  its  liability  in  so  far 
as  it  may  be  measured  by  the  replacement  cost  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  for  any  reason  it  is  peculiarly  difficult  for  the 
insured  to  replace  and,  consequently,  the  cost  of  replacement 
would  be  greater  than  market  cost  if  done  by  the  assured, 
that  circumstance  cannot  be  used  against  the  company’s 


interests.  Cost  of  repair  or  replacement  should  be  treated 
on  the  basis  of  general  market  conditions  rather  than  in  its 
relation  to  any  particular  party,  and  it  was  with  this  view 
that  the  change  from  the  old  form  was  made. 

Again,  the  change  by  striking  out  the  word  “then”  and 
adding  in  the  new  form  the  phrase  “within  a  reasonable  time 
after  such  loss  or  damage”  is  in  line  with  a  rational  and  fair 
treatment  of  this  subject  instead  of  a  technical  one.  As  a 
result  of  this  change,  there  should  be  no  room  for  argument 
that  the  replacement  cost  which  is  referred  to  involves  imme¬ 
diate  action  and  the  increased  expense  thereof  instead  of  a 
reasonable  time  allowance  in  view  of  the  situation  and  the 
character  of  the  work  of  replacement. 

The  elimination  of  the  words  “of  buildings”  as  formerly 
in  line  42  was  not  intended  as  a  change  of  substance,  but  was 
done  merely  because  the  words  added  nothing  to  the  mean¬ 
ing  of  the  sentence. 

The  insurance  is  further  limited  by  the  new  form  as 
follows : 

and  without  compensation  for  loss  resulting  from  interruption  of 
business  or  manufacture. 

The  corresponding  provision  of  the  old  policy  was  found  in 
the  paragraph  at  lines  38  to  44 : 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  loss  to . or  by  interruption 

of  business,  manufacturing  processes,  or  otherwise. — (Line  42.) 

The  change  is  not  one  of  substance  but  of  form.  As 
neither  computations  of  the  value  of  destroyed  or  damaged 
property  nor  estimates  of  its  replacement  cost  are  to  be  in¬ 
creased  by  loss  from  interruption  of  business  or  manufacture, 
it  is  important  to  the  policyholder  to  be  informed  of  this  by 
an  expression  of  the  limitation  as  a  qualifying  clause  imme¬ 
diately  connected  with  the  statement  of  the  company’s  prin¬ 
cipal  undertaking.  If  the  indirect  loss  due  to  interruption 
of  business  or  manufacture  is  to  be  insured  it  should  be  cov¬ 
ered  by  use  and  occupancy  or  profits  insurance. 

The  new  form  provides  for  insurance  not  only  by  fire 
but  “by  removal  from  premises  endangered  by  fire.”  This 
provision  is  new.  The  provision  in  the  old  form  was  restricted 
to  a  qualified  continuance  of  the  insurance  against  fire  loss 
in  a  new  location,  but  provided  for  no  liability  for  loss  or 
damage  incident  to  the  removal  (Old  form  lines  60  to  66). 
Some  courts  have  held  that  loss  or  damage  incurred  in  the 
process  of  removal  made  necessary  by  danger  of  fire,  are 
proximately  caused  by  the  fire  and  therefore  the  insurer  is 
liable.  While  this  is  open  to  question  as  a  legal  proposition, 
a  sound  public  policy  and  the  interest  both  of  the  insured 
and  the  insurers  require  that  the  company  should  assume 
such  liability.  Hereafter  the  obligation  will  depend  upon  a 
clear  provision  in  the  contract  and  uniform  treatment  of  the 
subject  will  be  required. 


5 


The  new  form  refers  to  the  property  covered  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  language : 

to  the  following  described  property  while  located  and  contained  as 
described  herein,  (or  pro  rata  for  five  days  at  each  proper  place  to 
which  any  of  the  property  shall  necessarily  be  removed  for  preserva¬ 
tion  from  fire),  but  not  elsewhere,  to-wit : 

In  the  old  form  this  clause  read  as  follows : 

to  the  following  described  property  while  located  and  contained  as 
described  herein  and  not  elsewhere,  to-wit : 

All  of  this  language  is  retained  but  between  the  word 
“herein”  and  the  word  “and”  is  inserted  a  clause  in  paren¬ 
thesis  continuing  the  insurance  for  five  days  at  a  place  to 
which  property  is  necessarily  removed  to  preserve  it  from 
fire.  The  corresponding  provision  of  the  old  policy  was  as 
follows : 

If  property  covered  by  this  policy  is  so  endangered  by  fire  as  to 
require  removal  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  is  so  removed,  that  part  of 
this  policy  in  excess  of  its  proportion  of  any  loss  and  of  the  value  of 
property,  remaining  in  the  original  location,  shall  for  the  ensuing  five 
days  only,  cover  the  property  so  removed  in  the  new  location ;  if 
removed  to  more  than  one  location,  such  excess  of  this  policy  shall 
cover  therein  for  such  five  days  in  the  proportion  that  the  value  in 
any  one  such  new  location  bears  to  the  value  in  all  such  new  loca¬ 
tions  ;  but  this  company  shall  not,  in  any  case  of  removal,  whether 
to  one  or  more  locations,  be  liable  beyond  the  proportion  that  the 
amount  hereby  insured  shall  bear  to  the  total  insurance  on  the  whole 
property  at  the  time  of  fire,  whether  the  same  cover  in  new  location 
or  not. — (Lines  60-66.) 

This  provision  of  the  old  form  was  in  terms  flatly  con¬ 
tradictory  to  the  clause  limiting  the  risk  to  the  described 
location.  It  was  more  elaborate  than  the  importance  of  the 
five-day  risk  warranted  and  it  was  ambiguous.  The  necessity 
for  the  elaboration  was  only  because,  by  the  old  form,  prop¬ 
erty  removed  as  a  precaution  thereupon  became  outside  the 
scope  of  the  policy  and  had  to  be  brought  back  under  the 
terms  of  the  policy  for  the  five-day  period  by  means  of  a 
clause  which  defined  its  participation  in  the  insurance  with 
the  property  not  so  removed.  The  effect  of  qualifying  the 
general  limitation  as  to  location  by  the  words  in  parenthesis, 
is  to  leave  the  removed  property  within  the  description  of 
property  insured,  for  five  days  after  removal,  and  the  words 
pro  rata ,  which  now  have  a  recognized  meaning  in  insurance 
terminology,  define  the  extent  of  participation  in  the  insur¬ 
ance,  by  property  removed  to  one  or  more  places,  precisely 
the  same  as  if  the  entire  clause  of  the  old  policy  were  used. 

The  new  policy  reads : 

1  Fraud,  misrepre-  This  entire  policy  shall  be  void  if  the  insured 

2  sentation,  etc.  has  concealed  or  misrepresented  any  ma- 

3  s  terial  fact  or  circumstance  concerning  this 

4  insurance  or  the  subject  thereof;  or  in  case  of  any  fraud  or  false 

5  swearing  by  the  insured  touching  any  matter  relating  to  this 

6  insurance  or  the  subject  thereof,  whether  before  or  after  a  loss. 

6 


The  old  form  read  as  follows  : 

This  entire  policy  shall  be  void  if  the  insured  has  concealed  or 
misrepresented,  in  writing  or  otherwise,  any  material  fact  or  cir¬ 
cumstance  concerning  this  insurance  or  the  subject  thereof;  or  if  the 
interest  of  the  insured  in  the  property  be  not  truly  stated  herein ;  or 
in  case  of  any  fraud  or  false  swearing  by  the  insured  touching  any 
matter  relating  to  this  insurance  or  the  subject  thereof,  whether  before  ( 
or  after  a  loss. — (Lines  7-10.) 

The  omitted  words  “in  writing  or  otherwise”  added 
nothing.  In  the  absence  of  expressed  restriction  upon  the 
kind  of  concealment  or  misrepresentation  intended,  it  is 
manifestly  impossible  to  limit  their  meaning  by  implication, 
so  as  to  require  an  additional  phrase  for  the  purpose  of  ex¬ 
tending  the  meaning  which  results  from  the  simple  use  of 
the  words,  without  qualification.  It  was  thought  that  the 
omitted  words,  “or  if  the  interest  of  the  insured  in  the  prop¬ 
erty  be  not  truly  stated  herein,”  have  sometimes  worked 
injustice  upon  the  insured,  without  being  necessary  for  the 
protection  of  the  company  against  dishonesty.  The  statement 
of  the  interest  of  the  insured,  as  set  forth  in  the  policy,  may 
be  made  by  the  company  or  its  agent,  not  by  the  insured. 

If  the  statement  is  erroneous  by  reason  of  concealment  or 
misrepresentation  by  the  insured,  the  policy  becomes  void 
by  the  operation  of  the  clause  at  lines  1  to  6  referring  to 
fraud  and  misrepresentation.  But  in  the  absence  of  fraud, 
the  insurance  should  not  be  invalidated  through  any  error  of 
expression  made  by  the  company’s  agent  but  not  induced  by 
the  wrongdoing  of  the  insured. 

The  new  policy  contains  a  clause  similar  to  the  old  form 
as  to  property  which  is  not,  and  cannot  be  insured  (new 
policy  lines  7-9,  old  policy  line  38).  But  the  provision  as  to 
property  excepted  from  the  coverage  now  provides  that  the 
policy  shall  not  cover 

9  nor,  unless  specifically 

10  named  hereon  in  writing,  bullion,  manu- 

11  scripts,  mechanical  drawings,  dies  or  patterns. 

The  old  form  provided  as  follows : 

nor,  unless  liability  is  specifically  assumed  hereon,  for  loss  to  awnings, 
bullion,  casts,  curiosities,  drawings,  dies,  implements,  jewels,  manu¬ 
scripts,  medals,  models,  patterns,  pictures,  scientific  apparatus,  signs, 
store  or  office  furniture  or  fixtures,  sculpture,  tools,  or  property  held  on 
storage  or  for  repairs. — (Lines  39-41.) 

Thus  under  the  new  form  unless  so  stated  in  the  policy 
the  company  is  not  liable  for  loss  “to  bullion,  manuscripts, 
mechanical  drawings,  dies  or  patterns”  even  though  such 
property  be  within  the  general  description  of  the  property 
insured  as  shown  by  the  description  upon  the  first  page  of 
the  policy.  But  all  of  the  other  kinds  of  property  which  by 
the  old  form  could  be  covered  only  by  rider  now  are  within 
the  general  coverage  of  the  policy  if  they  are  fairly  within 
the  general  description  of  the  property  insured  although  not 
specifically  mentioned. 


7 


The  clause  as  to  hazards  which  are  not  covered  is  the 
same  as  in  the  old  policy  (new  policy,  lines  12-19,  old  policy, 
lines  31-34). 

The  new  policy  reads  as  follows : 

20  This  entire  policy  shall  be  void,  unless  otherwise  provided 

21  by  agreement  in  writing  added  hereto, 

22  Ownership,  etc.  (a)  if  the  interest  of  the  insured  be  other  than 

23  unconditional  and  sole  ownership ;  or  (b)  if 

24  the  subject  of  insurance  be  a  building  on  ground  not  owned  by 

25  the  insured  in  fee  simple ;  or  (c)  if,  with  the  knowledge  of  the 

26  insured,  foreclosure  proceedings  be  commenced  or  notice  given 

27  of  sale  of  any  property  insured  hereunder  by  reason  of  any  mort- 

28  gage  or  trust  deed ;  or  (d)  if  any  change,  other  than  by  the  death 

29  of  an  insured,  take  place  in  the  interest,  title  or  possession  of 

30  the  subject  of  insurance  (except  change  of  occupants  without 

31  increase  of  hazard) ;  or  (e)  if  this  policy  be  assigned  before  a  loss. 

Lines  20  and  21  are  similar  to  the  old  form  which  read 
as  follows : 

This  entire  policy,  unless  otherwise  provided  by  agreement  in¬ 
dorsed  hereon  or  added  hereto,  shall  be  void. — ‘(Line  H.) 

The  specific  changes  of  language  are  that  the  wording  of 
what  is  now  clause  (c)  (Lines  25-28)  formerly  was : 

if,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  insured,  foreclosure  proceedings  be  com¬ 
menced  or  notice  given  of  sale  of  any  property  covered  by  this  policy 
by  virtue  of  any  mortgage  or  trust  deed. — (Lines  18-20.) 

At  the  end  of  the  present  clause  (d)  the  old  form  con¬ 
tained  the  following : 

whether  by  legal  process  or  judgment  or  by  voluntary  act  of  the 
insured,  or  otherwise. — {Lines  21-22.) 

These  words  were  omitted  in  order  to  eliminate  from  the 
policy  a  qualifying  clause  which  had  been  inserted  as  an 
attempt  to  make  a  change  of  interest,  not  attributable  to  any 
act  of  the  insured,  a  voidance  of  the  entire  policy. 

Except  as  explained,  all  the  language  in  lines  20  to  31 
of  the  new  policy  is  taken  verbatim  from  the  old  form  and  is 
to  be  found  in  line  11  and  lines  16  to  22. 

The  important  change  of  substance  which  should  be  ob¬ 
served  in  this  connection  is  that  in  the  old  policy  there  were 
fourteen  conditions,  a  violation  of  any  one  of  which  would 
terminate  the  entire  insurance  (Lines  11  to  30).  Under  the 
new  policy,  the  number  of  conditions  which  terminate  the 
entire  insurance  is  reduced  to  five. 

The  five  conditions  retained  in  the  new  policy,  as  being 
of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  termination  of  the  entire 
insurance  unless  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  company  by 
written  endorsement  added  to  the  policy,  were  placed  in  this 
category  because  of  their  vital  importance  and  their  essen¬ 
tially  irrevocable  character  from  the  insurance  point  of  view. 

(a)  If  the  insured  is  not  the  unconditional  and  sole 
owner  of  the  property,  he  lacks  insurable  interest  to  the 
extent  of  the  full  value  of  the  property  insured.  The  case 
presented,  then,  is  one  where,  in  case  of  destruction  of  the 

8 


property,  the  insured  loses  only  the  value  of  a  partial  inter¬ 
est,  but  collects  the  value  of  the  entire  property.  It  is  a  case 
where  over-insurance  is  necessarily  involved  and  incentive  to 
protect  the  property  from  destruction  is  necessarily  removed. 
Knowledge  of  the  facts,  brought  home  to  the  company,  is 
necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  company  to  limit  the  amount 
of  the  insurance  to  the  insured’s  partial  interest  in  the  prop¬ 
erty,  and  the  condition  presented  by  such  cases  is,  practically 
speaking,  a  permanent  condition  instead  of  a  temporary  one 
subject  to  removal  during  the  life  of  the  policy. 

(b)  A  somewhat  similar  condition  is  presented  when  a 
building  insured  is  upon  ground  not  owned  by  the  insured  in 
fee  simple,  for,  in  such  cases,  the  building  is  subject  to  be 
taken  away  from  the  beneficial  ownership  of  the  insured  and 
the  knowledge  of  this  fact  frequently  presents  a  case  where 
the  insured  becomes  tempted  to  permit  a  destruction  of  the 
property  which  will  enable  him  to  collect  the  value  of  the 
building  before  it  passes  out  of  his  possession.  This  condi¬ 
tion  also  is  a  permanent  rather  than  a  temporary  one  as  a 
matter  of  fire  underwriting,  for  it  is  improbable  that,  during 
the  life  of  the  policy,  the  condition  will  be  rectified  by  pur¬ 
chase  of  the  fee  of  the  property  upon  which  the  building 
stands. 

(c)  The  beginning  of  foreclosure  proceedings  or  notice 
of  sale  by  virtue  of/  a  power  of  sale  in  a  mortgage  increases 
the  moral  hazard  of  the  risk  for  obvious  reasons  and,  as  such 
proceedings  will,  in  ordinary  course,  be  followed  by  ter¬ 
minating  the  insured’s  interest  in  the  property,  the  condition 
presented  is  not  temporary  or  subject  to  removal  during  the 
existence  of  the  insurance  contract. 

(d)  A  change  of  interest,  title  or  possession  (except 
change  of  occupants  without  increase  of  hazard)  is  practically 
always  a  permanent  change  so  far  as  the  life  of  any  particular 
policy  is  concerned.  It  affects  the  essential  conditions  of  the 
insurance  and  it  may  increase  the  moral  hazard  or  require  an 
increase  of  premium. 

(e)  An  assignment  of  the  policy  before  loss  would 
change  the  most  essential  feature  of  the  contract.  If  this 
were  permitted  without  notice  to,  and  consent  by,  the  com¬ 
pany,  there  would  remain  no  opportunity  for  the  company 
to  select  the  parties  which  it  is  willing  to  indemnify.  Such 
a  change  amounts  to  the  making  of  a  new  and  different  con¬ 
tract  of  insurance. 

The  next  paragraph  of  the  new  policy  begins  : 

32  Unless  otherwise  provided  by  agreement  in  writing  added 

33  hereto  this  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  loss  or  damage 

34  occurring. 

This  clause  is  new.  It  must  be  read  in  connection  with 
each  of  the  clauses  marked  (a)  to  (g)  following  it  (lines  35 
to  61)  as  if  each  of  the  lettered  clauses  was  immediately 
preceded  by  the  words  in  lines  32  to  34  above  quoted.  1  he 


9 


arrangement  is  for  convenience  and  to  avoid  repetition. 

It  should  be  observed  here  that,  while  all  of  the  condi¬ 
tions  which  follow,  numbered  (a)  to  (f)  inclusive  (lines  35 
to  58)  were  conditions  of  the  old  policy,  the  violation  of 
which  voided  the  contract,  an  essential  change  has  been  made 
as  between  the  new  policy  and  the  old  in  that  these  condi¬ 
tions  hereafter  will  void  the  policy  only  while  the  prohibited 
conditions  exist,  but  will  not  void  the  entire  policy  for  its 
entire  term  as  was  provided  in  the  old  form  of  contract.  In 
other  words,  there  is  an  automatic  reinstatement  of  the  insur¬ 
ance  as  soon  as  the  prohibited  condition  ceases  to  exist.  It 
is  true  that  in  certain  jurisdictions  and  in  certain  circum¬ 
stances  courts  have  refused  a  literal  enforcement  of  the  old 
policy,  but  it  has  been  unfortunate  that  the  language  of  the 
old  form  was  either  so  harsh  or  so  ambiguous  as  to  permit 
inconsistent  treatment  by  the  courts  of  various  states  in  the 
matter  of  essential  conditions  of  the  fire  insurance  policy. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  changes  made  in  the  new  form  will  so 
clearly  differentiate  between  the  conditions  which  are  intended 
to  terminate  the  entire  policy  (lines  22  to  31)  and  the  condi¬ 
tions  which  are  intended  only  to  suspend  the  insurance  while 
the  violations  exist,  that  uniform  treatment  of  the  subject 
may  hereafter  be  secured. 

As  to  the  various  matters  which  suspend  the  insurance, 
if  not  permitted  by  indorsement  the  (a)  clause  (lines  35-3 7) 
as  to  other  insurance  and  the  (b)  clause  (lines  38-40)  as  to 
increase  of  hazard,  remain  in  substantially  the  same  wording 
as  the  old  policy. 

The  next  clause  (c)  as  to  repairs  now  reads  as  follows : 

41  Repairs,  etc.  (c)  while  mechanics  are  employed  in  building, 

42  altering  or  repairing  the  described  premises 

43  beyond  a  period  of  fifteen  days ;  or 

The  old  form  read : 

or  if  mechanics  be  employed  in  building,  altering  or  repairing  the 
within  described  premises  for  more  than  fifteen  days'  at  any  one  time. 
—(Lines  15-16.) 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  substitute  for  the  words  “for 
more  than  fifteen  days  at  any  one  time”  is  the  following : 
“beyond  a  period  of  fifteen  days.”  This  change  was  made 
in  order  to  bring  out  clearly,  as  the  old  form  failed  to  do, 
the  idea  that  a  period  of  time  is  intended  during  which  altera¬ 
tion  or  repair  work  is  conducted  although  the  work  may  not 
be  continuous  for  some  such  reason  as  that  a  Sunday  inter¬ 
venes  during  the  period. 

The  next  clause  (d)  providing  for  suspension  of  insur¬ 
ance  while  certain  fire  producing  materials  are  on  the  prem¬ 
ises,  warrants  rather  careful  consideration.  The  new  policy 
reads : 

44  Explosives,  (d)  while  illuminating  gas  or  vapor  is  gener- 

45  gas,  etc.  ated  on  the  described  premises ;  or  while 

46  (any  usage  or  custom  to  the  contrary  not- 

47  withstanding)  there  is  kept,  used .  or  allowed  on  the  described 


48  premises  fireworks,  greek  fire,  phosphorus,  explosives,  benzine, 

49  gasolene,  naphtha  or  any  other  petroleum  product  of  greater 

50  inflammability  than  kerosene  oil,  gunpowder  exceeding  twenty- 

51  five  pounds,  or  kerosene  oil  exceeding  five  barrels  ; 

The  corresponding  provision  of  the  old  form  was  as 
follows : 

or  if  illuminating  gas  or  vapor  be  generated  in  the  described  building 
(or  adjacent  thereto)  for  use  therein;  or  if  (any  usage  or  custom  of 
trade  or  manufacture  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding)  there  be  kept, 
used  or  allowed  on  the  above  described  premises,  benzine,  benzole, 
dynamite,  ether,  fireworks,  gasoline,  greek  fire,  gunpowder  exceeding: 
twenty-five  pounds  in  quantity,  naphtha,  nitro-glycerine  or  other 
explosives,  phosphorus,  or  petroleum  or  any  of  its  products  of  greater 
inflammability  than  kerosene  oil  of  the  United  States  standard  (which 
last  may  be  used  for  lights  and  kept  for  sale  according  to  law  but 
in  quantities  not  exceeding  five  barrels,  provided  it  be  drawn  and 
lamps  filled  by  daylight  or  at  a  distance  not  less  than  ten  feet  from 
artificial  light.) — (Lines  22-28.) 

The  changes  are  as  follows : 

The  word  “Building”  (old  form,  line  23)  is  changed  to 
“premises”  (new  form,  line  45). 

The  words  following  the  word  “building”  which  read 
“(or  adjacent  thereto)  for  use  therein”  are  omitted.  Thus,, 
under  the  new  policy,  the  generation  of  illuminating  gas  in 
an  adjacent  building  which  is  not  a  part  of  the  “premises”' 
will  not  void  the  insurance,  although  the  gas  is  for  use  in  the 
insured  premises. 

The  words  “of  trade  or  manufacture”  which,  in  the  old 
policy,  qualified  the  words  “usage  or  custom”  are  omitted 
(old  form,  lines  23-24)  because  believed  to  be  unnecessary 
as  usage  or  custom  include  the  usages  of  trade  or  manu¬ 
facture  as  well  as  all  other  usages. 

The  following  dangerous  products  which  were  prohibited 
by  the  old  policy  are  retained  as  voiding  the  new  policy  while 
they  are  on  the  premises :  Fireworks,  greek  fire,  phosphorous, 
explosives,  benzine,  gasoline,  naphtha,  petroleum  products  of 
greater  inflammability  than  kerosene  oil,  gunpowder  exceed¬ 
ing  25  pounds,  kerosene  exceeding  five  barrels. 

The  having  of  ether  on  the  premises  is  permitted  by  the 
new  policy. 

Dynamite  and  nitro-glycerine  become  prohibited  because 
they  are  “explosives”  although  no  longer  mentioned  by  name. 

Benzole  is  the  same  as  benzine. 

One  of  the  important  changes  in  this  section  is  the  elim¬ 
ination  of  the  reference  to  the  “United  States  standard”  for 
kerosene  oil.  Present  day  conditions  have  rendered  this 
unimportant  and  it  is  not  feasible  for  the  great  number  of 
policyholders  to  test  the  grade  of  kerosene.  Also,  the  pro¬ 
hibition  against  drawing  kerosene  and  filling  lamps  except 
by  daylight  and  at  least  ten  feet  from  artificial  light,  is 
omitted.  That  proper  care  should  be  taken  will  be  admitted, 
but  to  invalidate  insurance  for  its  omission  was  too  severe 
a  penalty. 


11 


The  new  suspension  clause,  which  is  applicable  to  fac¬ 
tories  only  is  as  follows  : 


i 


■k 


52  Factories.  (e)  if  the  subject  of  insurance  be  a  manufac- 

53  turing  establishment  while  operated  in 

54  whole  or  in  part  between  the  hours  of  ten  P.  M.  and  five  A.  M., 

55  or  while  it  ceases  to  be  operated  beyond  a  period  of  ten  days ; 

The  old  form  read : 

or  if  the  subject  of  insurance  be  a  manufacturing  establishment  and 
it  be  operated  in  whole  or  in  part  at  night  later  than  ten  o’clock  or 
if  it  cease  to  be  operated  for  more  than  ten  consecutive  days. — (Lines 
13-14.) 

The  words  “at  night”  are  omitted  as  unnecessary  because 
the  words  “later  than  ten  o’clock”  are  changed  to  read 
“between  the  hours  of  ten  p.  m.  and  five  a.  m.” 

It  was  appreciated  that  continuous  operation  of  a  factory 
day  and  night  increases  the  physical  hazard  of  the  risk  during 
the  day  as  well  as  during  the  night,  as  the  continuous  use 
may  result  in  overheating  of  bearings,  etc.  The  new  form, 
however,  not  only  prevents  a  voidance  of  the  entire  policy 
but  continues  the  insurance  in  force  during  the  daytime, 
even  when  the  clause  is  being  violated  by  night  operation 
without  consent  of  the  company. 

This  treatment  was  thought  sufficient  for  the  protection 
'of  the  company’s  interests  as  the  penalty  for  violation,  while 
much  less  severe  than  in  the  old  policy,  should  be  sufficient 
to  induce  the  great  number  of  factory  owners  to  give  the 
necessary  notice  and  secure  the  necessary  consent  of  the 
company. 

In  the  last  part  of  the  sentence  (line  55)  the  only  change 
of  substance  is  the  substitution  of  “while  it  ceases”  for  “if 
it  cease.”  The  effect  of  this  has  been  fully  discussed. 

The  unoccupancy  clause  (f)  (lines  56-58)  is  in  the  old 
language. 

By  the  new  policy  the  company  is  not,  unless  assumed 
by  rider,  liable  for  loss  : 

59  Explosion,  (g)  by  explosion  or  lightning,  unless  fire 

60  Lightning.  ensue,  and,  in  that  event,  for  loss  or  dam- 

61  age  by  fire  only. 

The  old  form  was  as  follows : 

or  (unless  fire  ensues,  and,  in  that  event  for  the  damage  by  fire  only) 
by  explosion  of  any  kind,  or  lightning;  but  liability  for  direct  damage 
by  lightning  may  be  assumed  by  specific  agreement  hereon. — (Lines 
34-35.) 

By  the  old  form  liability  was  limited  to  the  fire  loss  fol¬ 
lowing  explosion  or  lightning.  Direct  loss  by  explosion  could 
not  be  covered.  Direct  loss  by  lightning  might  be  assumed 
by  rider. 

By  the  new  form  fire  loss  following  explosion  or  light¬ 
ning  is  covered  by  the  policy  without  the  necessity  for  a 
rider. 

Both  direct  loss  by  explosion  and  by  lightning  may  be 
covered  provided  the  additional  liability  be  assumed  by  rider. 

12 


The  new  chattel  mortgage  clause  is : 

62  Chattel  mortgage.  Unless  otherwise  provided  by  agreement  in 

63  writing  added  hereto  this  Company  shall 

64  not  be  liable  for  loss  or  damage  to  any  property  insured  here- 

65  under  while  incumbered  by  a  chattel  mortgage,  and  during  the 

66  time  of  such  incumbrance  this  Company  shall  be  liable  only 

67  for  loss  or  damage  to  any  other  property  insured  hereunder. 

The  old  form  provided  that 

This  entire  policy,  unless  otherwise  provided  by  agreement  en¬ 
dorsed  hereon  or  added  hereto,  shall  be  void.  *  *  * — (Line  11.) 
or  if  the  subject  of  insurance  be  personal  property  and  be  or  become 
incumbered  by  a  chattel  mortgage. — (Line  18.) 

It  was  felt  that  the  operation  of  this  clause  was  too 
harsh,  although  the  principle  underlying  the  clause  was  a 
sound  one.  It  was  thought  that  a  chattel  mortgage  should 
only  suspend  the  insurance  upon  the  mortgaged  property  but 
should  not  affect  the  validity  of  the  insurance  upon  any  other 
property  covered  by  the  policy.  It  was  also  thought  that 
when  the  prohibited  condition  was  removed  the  insurance 
should  be  reinstated  as  to  the  property  which  formerly  had 
been  mortgaged.  The  clause  was  revised  to  accomplish  these 
two  purposes. 

In  testing  the  scope  and  effect  of  the  chattel  mortgage 
clause  in  the  new  form,  the  question  arose  whether,  in  a  case 
of  under-insurance  of  property,  a  part  of  which  was  encum¬ 
bered  by  a  chattel  mortgage  not  permitted  by  endorsement 
upon  the  policy  so  that  the  company  would  not  be  liable  for 
loss  to  the  mortgaged  portion  of  the  property,  the  portion 
of  the  insurance  otherwise  applicable  to  the  mortgaged  part 
would  go  to  increase  the  insurance  of  the  unmortgaged  part 
of  the  property.  It  was  felt  that  the  clause  as  drafted  for 
the  new  policy  would  not  be  susceptible  to  this  construction, 
for  it  seems  clear  that,  while  liability  to  pay  for  loss  or 
damage  to  the  mortgaged  property  was  suspended,  the  insur¬ 
ance  effected  by  the  policy  covers  the  whole  of  the  property 
described  in  the  policy,  including  the  mortgaged  portion,  and 
the  reason  why  the  company  is  not  liable  for  the  loss  to  the 
mortgaged  part  of  the  property  is  not  because  that  property 
has  been  excluded  from  the  coverage,  but  because  the  insur¬ 
ance  protection  is  suspended  as  to  part  of  the  property  while 
the  prohibited  conditions  are  in  existence. 

The  fallen  building  clause  now  reads : 

68  Fall  of  Building.  If  a  building,  or  any  material  part  thereof, 

69  fall  except  as  the  result  of  fire,  all  insurance 

70  by  this  policy  on  such  building  or  its  contents  shall  immediately 

71  cease. 

The  old  form  was  the  same  except  for  the  insertion  of 
the  word  “material.” 

Many  courts  held  that  the  old  clause  must  be  construed 
as  limited  to  cases  where  a  material  part  of  the  building  fell 
— material  in  the  sense  of  a  substantial  or  an  integral  part. 
Such  constructions  are  reasonable  and  the  authority  for  them 


13 


should  be  found  in  the  contract  itself  so  that  all  may  know 
their  rights  without  the  necessity  of  consulting  judicial 
reports  in  order  to  learn  them. 

As  to  the  subject  of  adding  clauses  to  the  policy,  the 
new  form  provides  as  follows : 

72  Added  Clauses.  The  extent  of  the  application  of  insurance 

73  under  this  policy  and  of  the  contribution  to 

74  be  made  by  this  Company  in  case  of  loss  or  damage,  and  any 

75  other  agreement  not  inconsistent  with  or  a  waiver  of  any  of 

76  the  conditions  or  provisions  of  this  policy,  may  be  provided  for 

77  by  agreement  in  writing  added  hereto. 

The  old  form  provided  that : 


> 


.JSSJ 


the  extent  of  the  application  of  the  insurance  under  this  policy  or  of 
the  contribution  to  be  made  by  this  company  in  case  of  loss,  may  be 
provided  for  by  agreement  or  condition  written  hereon  or  attached  or 
appended  hereto. — (Lines  98-100.) 

This  clause  is  continued  without  substantial  change. 

But  there  was  another  and  an  essential  rule  in  reference 
to  clauses  which  might  be  added  to  the  policy,  yet  which 
nowhere  appeared  in  the  policy  itself.  The  law  of  New  York 
(Insurance  Law,  Section  121)  provided  that  there  might  be 
added  to  the  contract 

any  other  matter  necessary  to  clearly  express  all  the  facts  and  con¬ 
ditions  of  insurance  on  any  particular  risk  not  inconsistent  with  or  a 
waiver  of  any  of  the  conditions  or  provisions  of  the  standard  policy 
herein  provided  for. 

The  policy  should  show  on  its  face  what  additional 
clauses  may  lawfully  be  added  and  it  was  with  this  in  mind 
that  the  new  matter  was  included  as  a  part  of  this  clause. 

The  new  clause  as  to  waiver  is  as  follows : 

78  Waiver.  No  one  shall  have  power  to  waive  any  pro- 

79  vision  or  condition  of  this  policy  except  such 

80  as  by  the  terms  of  this  policy  may  be  the  subject  of  agreement 

81  added  hereto,  nor  shall  any  such  provision  or  condition  be  held 

82  to  be  waived  unless  such  waiver  shall  be  in  writing  added  hereto, 

83  nor  shall  any  provision  or  condition  of  this  policy  or  any  for- 

84  feiture  be  held  to  be  waived  by  any  requirement,  act  or  proceed- 

85  ing  on  the  part  of  this  Company  relating  to  appraisal  or  to  any 

86  examination  herein  provided  for ;  nor  shall  any  privilege  or  per- 

87  mission  affecting  the  insurance  hereunder  exist  or  be  claimed  by 

88  the  insured  unless  granted  herein  or  by  rider  added  hereto. 

In  this  clause  there  are  brought  together  under  a  single 
heading  all  the  provisions  of  the  old  form  relating  to  the 
subject  of  waiver,  a  part  of  which  were  to  be  found  on  the 
first  page  of  the  policy  as  follows : 

and  no  officer,  agent  or  other  representative  of  this  Company  shall 
have  power  to  waive  any  provision  or  condition  of  this  Policy  except 
such  as  by  the  terms  of  this  Policy  may  be  the  subject  of  agreement 
endorsed  hereon  or  added  hereto;  and  as  to  such  provisions  and  con¬ 
ditions  no  officer,  agent  or  representative  shall  have  such  power  or  be 
deemed  or  held  to  have  waived  such  provisions  or  conditions  unless 
such  waiver,  if  any,  shall  be  written  upon  or  attached  hereto,  nor  shall 
any  privilege  or  permission  affecting  the  insurance  under  this  Policy 
exist  or  be  claimed  by  the  insured  unless  so  written  or  attached. 

14 


omrs 


iL-i 


And  another  part  on  the  second  page  as  follows : 

This  Company  shall  not  be  held  to  have  waived  any  provision  or 
condition  of  this  policy  or  any  forfeiture  thereof  by  any  requirement, 
act,  or  proceeding  on  its  part  relating  to  the  appraisal  or  to  any 
examination  herein  provided  for.— ’(Lines  92-93.) 

By  doing  this  the  revisers  were  able  to  eliminate  repeti¬ 
tion  and  useless  verbiage  and  to  place  all  provisions  relating 
to  the  subject  of  waiver  where  they  could  readily  be  found. 

The  new  cancellation  clause  is  as  follows : 

89  Cancellation  This  policy  shall  be  cancelled  at  any  time 

90  of  policy  at  the  request  of  the  insured,  in  which  case 

91  the  Company  shall,  upon  demand  and  sur- 

92  render  of  this  policy,  refund  the  excess  of  paid  premium  above 

93  the  customary  short  rates  for  the  expired  time.  This  policy 

94  may  be  cancelled  at  any  time  by  the  Company  by  giving  to  the 

95  insured  a  five  days’  written  notice  of  cancellation  with  or  with- 

96  out  tender  of  the  excess  of  paid  premium  above  the  pro  rata 

97  premium  for  the  expired  time,  which  excess,  if  not  tendered, 

98  shall  be  refunded  on  demand.  Notice  of  cancellation  shall  state 

99  that  said  excess  premium  (if  not  tendered)  will  be  refunded  on 
100  demand. 

The  old  form  was  as  follows : 

This  policy  shall  be  cancelled  at  any  time  at  the  request  of  the 
insured;  or  by  the  Company  by  giving  five  days’  notice  of  such  can¬ 
cellation.  If  this  policy  shall  be  cancelled  as  hereinbefore  provided, 
or  become  void  or  cease,  the  premium  having  been  actually  paid,  the 
unearned  portion  shall  be  returned  on  surrender  of  this  policy  or  last 
renewal,  this  Company  retaining  the  customary  short  rate;-  except 
that  when  this  policy  is  cancelled  by  this  Company  by  giving  notice 
it  shall  retain  only  the  pro  rata  premium. — (Lines  51-55.) 

The  cancellation  clause  of  the  old  standard  form  is  a 
striking  example  of  the  difficulty  of  making  the  language  of 
a  contract  not  only  clear  but  so  clear  as  to  render  it  impos¬ 
sible  of  misunderstanding. 

Notwithstanding  the  meticulous  and  careful  work  of  the 
drafters  of  the  New  York  standard  form  of  1886  as  applied 
to  this  clause,  the  weight  of  judicial  authority  has  determined 
its  meaning  to  be  contrary  to  what  was  intended.  The  clause 
provided  that  upon  cancellation  of  a  policy,  the  premium 
upon  which  had  been  paid 

the  unearned  portion  shall  be  returned  on  surrender  of  this  policy  or 
last  renewal, 

yet  many  courts  have  construed  the  clause  to  mean  that  the 
unearned  premium  must  be  tendered  at  the  time  of  cancella¬ 
tion  in  order  that  an  attempted  cancellation  by  the  company 
might  be  effective.  Perhaps  the  leading  case  on  this  subject 
is  Tisdell  v.  New  Llampshire  Insurance  Co.  (155  N.  Y.  163). 
There  is  no  question  that  the  public  interest,  as  well  as  fair¬ 
ness  to  the  companies,  requires  that  an  insurance  company 
shall  be  permitted  to  cancel  a  policy  without  tender  of  un¬ 
earned  premium.  It  is  frequently  difficult  for  the  company 
to  reach  the  insured  with  a  notice  of  cancellation  and  this  is 
rendered  increasingly  difficult  in  cases  where  the  insured  is 
dishonest  and  tries  to  evade  a  cancellation  notice.  The  under- 


15 


taking  may  involve  the  sending  of  several  notices  to  different 
addresses,  but  should  not  involve  multiple  tenders  of  un¬ 
earned  premium.  The  public  has  a  vital  interest,  though  an 
indirect  one,  in  having  insurance  cancelled  in  cases  where 
suspicion  of  intended  incendiarism  is  aroused  and,  therefore, 
the  companies  should  be  facilitated  in  effecting  such  cancella¬ 
tion  provided  the  rights  of  the  insured  are  protected. 
Assuming  that  a  company  was  insolvent,  it  would  be  of 
benefit  to  any  insured  to  have  his  policy  cancelled  so  as  to 
enable  him  to  transfer  the  policy  to  a  solvent  company  even 
at  the  risk  of  losing  the  unearned  portion  of  the  premium, 
but,  practically  speaking,  companies  are  always  in  a  position 
to  respond  to  their  obligation  to  refund  return  premium.  It 
sometimes  happens,  however,  that  a  policyholder  is  unaware 
of  his  right  to  collect  a  return  premium  on  cancellation  and 
provision  is  made  in  the  new  form  for  giving  this  informa¬ 
tion  in  all  cases  by  requiring  a  statement  in  the  cancellation 
notice  to  the  effect  that  the  excess  premium,  if  not  tendered, 
will  be  refunded  on  demand. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  statement  of  the  new  form  that  the 
policy  may  be  cancelled  by  giving  the  insured  a  five  days’ 
written  notice  of  cancellation 

with  or  without  tender  of  the  excess  of  paid  premium  above  the  pro 
rata  premium  for  the  expired  time,  which  excess,  if  not  tendered,  shall 
be  refunded  on  demand, 

may  state  the  proposition  with  sufficient  clearness  and  elabor¬ 
ation  to  avoid  conflicting  decisions  upon  this  point  in  the 
future. 

It  is  also'  hoped  that  the  clause  is  drafted  with  sufficient 
clearness  so  that  the  intention  may  be  effective  that  only  a 
single  notice  of  cancellation  is  required,  to  effect  termination 
of  liability  at  the  expiration  of  five  days  from  receipt  of  the 
notice  by  the  assured. 

The  new  policy  provides : 

101  Pro  rata  liability.  This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a 

102  greater  proportion  of  any  loss  or  damage 

103  than  the  amount  hereby  insured  shall  bear  to  the  whole 

104  insurance  covering  the  property,  whether  valid  or  not  and 

105  whether  collectible  or  not. 

The  old  form  was  as  follows : 

This  Company  shall  not  be  liable  under  this  policy  for  a  greater 
proportion  of  any  loss  on  the  described  property,  or  for  loss  by  and 
expense  of  removal  from  premises  endangered  by  fire,  than  the  amount 
hereby  insured  shall  bear  to  the  whole  insuranc,  whether  valid  or  not, 
or  by  solvent  or  insolvent  insurers,  covering  such  property. — (Lines 
96-98.) 

The  words  “any  loss  or  damage”  are  of  broader  import 
than  the  phrase  used  in  the  old  form  and  include  loss  or 
damage  by  removal  from  endangered  premises,  as  this  kind 
of  loss  or  damage  is  expressly  insured  against  under  the  new 
form.  The  phrase  “whether  collectible  or  not”  is  somewhat 
broader  in  its  meaning  than  the  phrase  “or  by  solvent  or 
insolvent  insurers”  and  includes  all  that  the  old  phrase  meant. 

16 


The  new  policy  provides  that : 

106  Noon.  The  word  ‘  ‘noon”  herein  means  noon  of 

107  standard  time  at  the  place  of  loss  or  damage. 

This  clause  is  new.  It  effects  a  change  in  the  policy  as 
under  judicial  construction  the  word  “noon”  was  generally 
held  to  refer  to  solar  instead  of  standard  time.  In  view  of 
the  recent  custom  of  changing  timepieces  as  the  result  of 
law  or  ordinance  or  common  consent,  for  daylight  saving,  it 
becomes  important  to  remember  what  constitutes  standard 
time.  Generally  speaking  standard  time  is  the  time  used  by 
railroads  under  an  arrangement  made  in  the  year  1883 
effective  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  continent  is 
divided  into  four  sections,  each  of  fifteen  degress  of  longitude 
and  each  section  takes  the  solar  time  of  the  centre  meridian. 
Thus  “eastern  time”  is  the  solar  time  of  the  seventy-fifth 
meridian.  It  is  this  system  which  is  now  read  into  the  insur¬ 
ance  policy.  It  continues  regardless  of  daylight  saving  reg¬ 
ulations  based  on  custom  or  ordinance  rather  than  statute 
law. 

While  such  is  the  general  situation  as  to  construction  of 
the  words  “noon  of  standard  time”  the  subject  has  been  con¬ 
trolled  for  the  state  of  New  York  by  statute  since  the  year 
1892  (Statutory  Construction  Law,  Section  28;  General  Con¬ 
struction  Law,  Section  52).  It  was  at  that  time  enacted  that 
standard  time  throughout  this  state  should  be  that  of  the 
seventy-fifth  meridian  of  longitude  and  the  New  York  statute 
has  recently  been  amended  (Laws  1918,  Chapter  112)  so  as 
to  provide  that  the  time  of  the  seventy-fifth  meridian  of 
longitude  should  remain  as  standard  throughout  the  state 
except  that  the  standard  time  of  the  state  should  be  advanced 
one  hour  on  the  last  Sunday  of  March  and  retarded  one  hour 
on  the  last  Sunday  of  October.  Thus,  the  daylight  saving- 
time  is  standard  in  New  York  state  although  it  differs  from 
the  time  used  by  the  railroads. 

In  March,  1918  (Act  of  March  19,  1918),  Congress 
enacted  a  statute  described  as  being 

for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  standard  time  of  the  United  States. 

The  act  legalized  the  standard  time  which  had  been 
established  by  railroad  custom,  except  that  it  gave  to  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  authority  to  define  the 
limits  of  each  time  zone  and  modify  those  limits  from  time 
to  time,  having  regard  for  convenience  of  commerce,  and  it 
also  carried  into  the  law  the  daylight  saving  plan  of  advanc¬ 
ing  the  time  one  hour  between  the  last  Sunday  in  March  and 
the  last  Sunday  in  October.  In  August,  1919  (Act  of  August 
20,  1919)  the  daylight  saving  feature  of  the  act  of  Congress 
was  repealed.  The  existence  of  the  federal  law  presents  a 
somewhat  interesting  question  in  view  of  its  present  conflict 
with  the  New  York  State  law.  In  this  connection  it  should 
be  observed  that  the  only  effect  which  the  act  of  Congress 
purports  to  have  is  that  the  time  established  by  Congress 


17 


shall  govern  the  movement  of  common  carriers  engaged  in 
interstate  commerce  and  shall  govern  the  acts  of  officers  of 
the  United  States  and  the  construction  of  statutes  of  the 
United  States  (Section  2).  It  seems  clear  that  in  view  of  the 
limitations  of  the  federal  act,  the  clause  of  the  standard  policy 
of  the  State  of  New  York  established  by  the  legislature  is 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  General  Construction  Law  in 
this  state  rather  than  the  federal  act,  and  that  so  long  as  the 
daylight  saving  provisions  remain  a  part  of  the  state  law 
they  are  read  into  the  fire  insurance  policy  as  indicating  the 
time  when  the  policy  takes  effect  and  when  the  insurance 
ceases.  No  doubt,  the  same  condition  exists  in  any  other 
states  which  may  now  or  hereafter  establish  the  standard 
policy  by  act  of  legislature  and  then  by  another  state  law 
standardize  time  for  the  state  on  a  basis  other  than  that  fixed 
by  the  federal  statute. 

Of  course,  in  the  absence  of  a  state  law  on  the  subject, 
standard  time  is  railroad  time  as  there  is  no  conflict  between 
the  federal  act  and  the  custom  of  railroads,  nor  can  there  be 
any  such  conflict,  as  the  effect  of  any  federal  legislation  neces¬ 
sarily  changes  the  custom  of  railroads  which  constitutes 
standard  time  and  controls  the  interpretation  of  the  policy 
in  the  absence  of  specific  statutes  to  the  contrary. 

The  new  clause  as  to  mortgage  interests  should  be  crit¬ 
ically  considered.  It  reads : 

108  Mortgage  .  If  loss  or  damage  is  made  payable,  in  whole 

109  interests.  or  in  part,  to  a  mortgagee  not  named  herein 

110  as  the  insured,  this  policy  may  be  cancelled 

111  as  to  such  interest  by  giving  to  such  mortgagee  a  ten  days’ 

112  written  notice  of  cancellation.  Upon  failure  of  the  insured  to 

113  render  proof  of  loss  such  mortgagee  shall,  as  if  named  as  insured 

114  hereunder,  but  within  sixty  days  after  notice  of  such  failure  ren- 

115  der  proof  of  loss  and  shall  be  subject  to  the  provisions  hereof  as 

116  to  appraisal  and  times  of  payment  and  of  bringing  suit.  On  pay- 

117  ment  to  such  mortgagee  of  any  sum  for  loss  or  damage  here- 

118  under,  if  this  Company  shall  claim  that  as  to  the  mortgagor  or 

119  owner,  no  liability  existed,  it  shall,  to  the  extent  of  such  pay- 

120  ment  be  subrogated  to  the  mortgagee’s  right  of  recovery  and 

121  claim  upon  the  collateral  to  the  mortgage  debt,  but  without 

122  impairing  the  mortgagee’s  right  to  sue ;  or  it  may  pay  the  mort- 

123  gage  debt  and  require  an  assignment  thereof  and  of  the  mortgage. 

124  Other  provisions  relating  to  the  interests  and  obligations  of  such 

125  mortgagee  may  be  added  hereto  by  agreement  in  writing. 

The  only  reference  to  mortgagee  interests  contained  in 
the  old  policy  was  the  following: 

If,  with  the  consent  of  this  Company,  an  interest  under  this 
policy  shall  exist  in  favor  of  a  mortgagee  or  of  any  person  or  cor¬ 
poration  having  an  interest  in  the  subject  of  insurance  other  than  the 
interest  of  the  insured  as  described  herein,  the  conditions  hereinbefore 
contained  shall  apply  in  the  manner  expressed  in  such  provisions  and 
conditions  of  insurance  relating  to  such  interest  as  shall  be  written 
upon,  attached,  or  appended  hereto. — (Lines  56-59.) 

It  will  be  observed  that  under  the  old  form,  the  only 
provisions  of  the  policy  referred  to  were  “the  conditions 

18 


hereinbefore  contained.”  In  other  words,  the  clause  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  mortgagee  interest  provided  the  manner  in  which  the 
provisions  of  the  policy  could  be  made  to  apply  to  mortgagee 
interests,  but  provided  only  a  means  for  making  applicable 
to  mortgagee’s  interest  in  the  provisions  of  the  policy  preced¬ 
ing  lines  56  to  59  and  did  not  provide  any  means  whatever 
for  making  apply  to  mortgagee  interests  any  of  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  the  policy  which  followed  lines  56  to  59. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  as  to  the  provisions  preced¬ 
ing  lines  56  to  59  the  form  provided  that  they  were  to  apply 
in  the  manner  expressed  in  such  provisions  and  conditions  as 
shall  be  written  upon,  attached  or  appended  to  the  policy. 
In  other  words,  the  rider  relating  to  mortgagee  interests  must 
be  looked  to  to  ascertain  how  the  conditions  of  the  policy 
were  to  apply  to  such  interests,  and  it  was  only  as  the  rider 
in  reference  to  mortgagee  interests  indicated  the  manner  in 
which  the  policy  provisions  preceding  line  56  should  apply 
to  such  interests  that  they  could  be  held  to  apply  at  all. 

Under  the  old  form,  mortgagee  interests  were  covered  in 
one  of  two  ways,  either  by  a  simple  loss  payable  clause  read¬ 
ing  “Loss,  if  any,  payable  to  John  Doe,  mortgagee”  or  by 
the  standard  mortgagee  clause. 

In  the  first  case,  the  use  of  the  words  “Loss,  if  any,  pay¬ 
able  to  John  Doe,  mortgagee”  read  in  connection  with  the 
provisions  in  lines  56  to  59  to  the  effect  that  the  policy  pro¬ 
visions  preceding  line  56  should  “apply  in  the  manner  ex¬ 
pressed  in  such  provisions  *  *  *  as  shall  be  written  upon 

or  attached”  to  the  policy,  rendered  it  necessary  to  examine 
all  of  the  provisions  of  the  policy  preceding  line  56  in  order 
to  ascertain  what,  if  any,  loss  was  payable  under  the  policy, 
and  only  such  loss,  as  by  this  examination  of  the  policy 
should  be  found  to  be  payable,  was  due  from  the  company 
to  the  mortgagee  who  had  been  made  the  appointee  for  pay¬ 
ment  of  the  loss.  This  made  the  mortgagee’s  interest  in  the 
policy  subject  to  all  of  the  policy  conditions  preceding  line  56 
which  might  constitute  a  defense  available  to  the  company 
against  payment  on  account  of  loss.  In  other  words,  the 
mortgagee  was  subject  to  defenses  available  against  the 
insured. 

The  situation  thus  presented  was,  in  many  respects, 
unfair.  To  meet  it,  the  standard  mortgagee  clauses  were 
prepared  and  very  largely  used  for  the  protection  of  mort¬ 
gagee  interests.  By  these  clauses,  a  mortgagee  is  made  an 
appointee  for  payment  through  the  use  of  the  following  lan¬ 
guage  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses 

Loss  or  damage,  if  any,  under  this  policy,  shall  be  payable  to  blank  as 
mortgagee  [or  trustee]  as  interest  may  appear  *  *  *. 

Thus,  as  in  the  first  case  above  referred  to,  where  the 
mortgagee  is  merely  made  an  appointee  of  payment,  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  the  policy  preceding  line  56  are  read  into  the  con¬ 
tract  between  the  company  and  the  mortgagee,  but  this  situa- 


19 


I 


I 


.rc- 


tion  is  immediately  qualified  by  the  subsequent  language  of 
the  standard  mortgagee  clauses  which  expressly  provide  that 
certain  of  the  defenses  which  would  be  available  against  the 
insured  shall  not  be  available  as  against  the  mortgagee,  that 
is  to  say,  the  mortgagee’s  interest  in  the  insurance  shall  not 
be  invalid  by  reason  of  any  act  or  neglect  of  the  owner  nor 
by  foreclosure  proceedings  or  notice  of  sale  or  change  of  title 
or  ownership  nor  more  hazardous  occupation  of  the  property, 
provided  the  mortgagee  shall  notify  the  company  of  change 
of  ownership,  occupancy  or  increase  of  hazard  which  shall 
come  to  his  knowledge,  and,  on  demand,  pay  an  increased 
premium.  Also,  express  provision  is  made  for  cancellation 
of  the  policy  as  to  mortgagee  interests  and  for  subrogation. 
In  certain  cases,  the  mortgagee  clause,  providing  as  outlined 
above,  has  been  used,  but  with  the  addition  of  a  provision 
for  full  contribution  of  all  insurance  whether  carried  by 
owner  or  mortgagee. 

By  the  use  of  standard  mortgagee  clauses,  a  contract 
reasonably  equitable  in  most  respects  as  to  the  interest  both 
of  the  mortgagees  and  the  companies  was  created,  for,  under 
such  clauses,  the  provisions  of  the  policy  preceding  line  56 
were  read  into  the  contract  except  as  the  mortgagee  was  freed 
from  forfeiture  of  the  insurance  by  acts  or  neglects  for  which 
the  mortgagee  was  not  responsible  and  of  which  he  had  no 
knowledge.  But,  even  in  the  case  of  use  of  a  mortgagee 
clause,  no  part  of  the  policy  following  line  59  was  applicable 
to  the  insurance  of  mortgagee  interests.  Therefore,  such 
important  provisions  as  those  which  require  notice  of  loss, 
right  of  appraisal  and  limitation  upon  time  of  suit  were  en¬ 
tirely  omitted  from  the  contract  with  the  mortgagee.  This 
feature  of  the  situation  was  the  same  whether  a  simple  loss 
payable  clause  was  used  to  cover  mortgagee  interests  or 
whether  a  standard  mortgagee  clause  was  used  for  that  pur¬ 
pose.  In  other  words,  the  conditions  of  the  policy  following 
line  59  were  completely  omitted  from  the  insurance  contract 
in  reference  to  mortgagee  interests  and  could  not  be  made  a 
part  of  that  contract  because  of  the  unfortunate  use  of  the 
word  “hereinbefore”  in  line  58.  This  situation  was  pointed 
out  in  a  number  of  cases,  the  principal  one  being  Heilbrunn 
v.  German  Alliance  Insurance  Co.  (140  App.  Div.  557,  which 
was  affirmed  by  the  New  York  Court  of  Appeals  and  is  re¬ 
ported  in  202  N.  Y.  610.)  In  the  Heilbrunn  case,  the  unsat¬ 
isfactory  character  of  the  contract  was  commented  upon  and 
the  suggestion  made  that  the  standard  fire  insurance  policy 
should  be  revised  to  correct  it. 

The  purpose  of  the  new  clause  (lines  108  to  125)  of  the 
new  policy  is  to  continue  the  rule  that  the  standard  policy 
conditions  shall  apply  to  mortgagee  interests  as  the  policy 
conditions  may  be  referred  to  and  made  applicable  to  such 
interests  by  rider  added  to  the  policy,  but  to  broaden  the  old 
form  so  that  any  of  the  policy  conditions  may  be  made  to 

20 


mmm 


wmm 


apply  to  mortgagee  interests  instead  of  limiting  the  conditions 
which  may  be  made  so  to  apply,  to  a  part  only  of  the  con¬ 
ditions  set  forth  in  the  policy.  In  addition  to  this,  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  the  revisers  of  the  new  form  was  to  provide  expressly 
certain  minimum  essential  conditions  of  the  insurance  con¬ 
tract  covering  mortgagee  interests  which  should  apply  al¬ 
though  not  mentioned  in  the  mortgagee  clause  attached  to 
the  policy.  These  minimum  conditions  are  (1)  cancellation 
as  to  the  mortgagee  upon  ten  days’  written  notice,  (2)  obliga¬ 
tion  of  the  mortgagee  to  render  proof  of  loss  within  sixty 
days  after  notice  of  failure  of  the  insured  to  do  so,  (3)  making 
the  mortgagee  interests  subject  to  the  provisions  for  appraisal, 
(4)  time  of  payment,  (5)  time  of  bringing  suit,  and  (6)  pro¬ 
viding  for  subrogation.  Thus,  under  the  new  form,  if  the 
only  clause  in  reference  to  a  mortgagee  interest  which  is 
added  to  the  policy  is  the  ordinary  loss  payable  clause  there 
will  thereby  be  read  into  the  contract  with  the  mortgagee  all 
of  the  provisions  of  the  standard  form  which  are  necessary 
to  ascertain  what  loss  is  payable  under  the  policy  and,  in  addi¬ 
tion,  the  provisions  of  lines  108  to  125  will  apply  to  the  con¬ 
tract  with  the  mortgagee.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  mortgagee 
clause  is  used,  the  conditions  of  the  policy  necessary  to  be 
examined  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  loss  under 
the  policy  will  apply  except  as  modified  by  the  mortgagee 
clause  and,  in  addition,  the  provisions  of  lines  108  to  125  will 
be  a  part  of  the  contract  with  the  mortgagee  and  will  super¬ 
sede  any  inconsistent  provisions  which  might  be  inserted  in 
a  mortgagee  clause. 

The  new  requirements  in  case  of  loss  read  as  follows  : 

126  Requirements  in  The  insured  shall  give  immediate  notice,  in 

127  case  of  loss.  writing,  to  this  Company,  of  any  loss  or 

128  damage,  protect  the  property  from  further 

129  damage,  forthwith  separate  the  damaged  and  undamaged 

130  personal  property,  put  it  in  the  best  possible  order,  furnish  a 

131  complete  inventory  of  the  destroyed,  damaged  and  undamaged 

132  property,  stating  the  quantity  and  cost  of  each  article  and  the 

133  amount  claimed  thereon ;  and,  the  insured  shall,  within  sixty 

134  days  after  the  fire,  unless  such  time  is  extended  in  writing  by 

135  this  Company,  render  to  this  Company  a  proof  of  loss,  signed 

136  and  sworn  to  by  the  insured,  stating  the  knowledge  and  belief 

137  of  the  insured  as  to  the  following :  the  time  and  origin  of  the  fire, 

138  the  interest  of  the  insured  and  of  all  others  in  the  property,  the 

139  cash  value  of  each  item  thereof  and  the  amount  of  loss  or  damage 

140  thereto,  all  incumbrances  thereon,  all  other  contracts  of  in- 

141  surance,  whether  valid  or  not,  covering  any  of  said  property, 

142  any  changes  in  the  title,  use,  occupation,  location,  possession,  or 

143  exposures  of  said  property  since  the  issuing  of  this  policy,  by 

144  whom  and  for  what  purpose  any  building  herein  described  and 

145  the  several  parts  thereof  were  occupied  at  the  time  of  fire ;  and 

146  shall  furnish  a  copy  of  all  the  descriptions  and  schedules  in  all 

147  policies  and  if  required,  verified  plans  and  specifications  of  any 

148  building,  fixtures  or  machinery  destroyed  or  damaged.  The 

149  insured,  as  often  as  may  be  reasonably  required ;  shall  exhibit 

150  to  any  person  designated  by  this  Company  all  that  remains  of 

151  any  property  herein  described,  and  submit  to  examinations 


21 


VS'*; 


;•  ■  »,\ 


152  under  oath  by  any  person  named  by  this  Company,  and 

153  subscribe  the  same;  and,  as  often  as  may  be  reasonably 

154  required,  shall  produce  for  examination  all  books  of  account, 

155  bills,  invoices,  and  other  vouchers,  or  certified  copies  thereof, 

156  if  originals  be  lost,  at  such  reasonable  time  and  place  as  may 

157  be  designated  by  this  Company  or  its  representative,  and  shall 

158  permit  extracts  and  copies  thereof  to  be  made. 

This  is  a  revision  of  lines  67  to  85  of  the  old  form. 


lows 


The  substantial  changes  from  the  old  form  are  as  fol- 


ii 


(1)  The  insured  must  not  only  make  an  inventory  but 
furnish”  the  inventory  to  the  company.  Under  the  old 

form,  it  sometimes  happened  that  an  insured  would  insist 
that  he  had  complied  with  the  policy  conditions  by  making 
the  inventory  without  giving  the  company  any  beneficial  use 
of  it. 

(2)  The  inventory,  under  the  new  form,  shall  include 
not  only  the  damaged  and  undamaged  personal  property  as 
formerly,  but  all  property  which  was  damaged  or  undamaged 
and,  in  addition,  an  inventory  of  the  destroyed  property. 
Such  clauses  are  always  interpreted  as  limited  by  the  ability 
of  the  party  to  perform  them  and  the  insured  will  be  required 
under  the  new  clause  to  state  all  that  he  knows  or  can,  with 
reasonable  diligence,  find  out  as  to  the  items  of  destroyed, 
damaged  and  undamaged  property. 

(3)  The  obligations  of  the  assured  to  exhibit  all  that 
remains  of  property  and  to  submit  to  examination  under  oath 
and  to  produce  books  and  vouchers  are  all  qualified  by  the 
phrase  “may  be  reasonably  required.” 

(4)  Under  the  old  policy,  the  place  required  for  pro¬ 
duction  of  books  must  be  reasonable  and  under  the  new 
policy,  not  only  the  place,  but  the  time  for  such  production 
as  may  be  required  by  the  company  must  be  reasonable. 

(5)  The  old  policy  provided  that  the  insured 


shall  also,  if  required,  furnish  a  certificate  of  the  magistrate  or  notary 
public  (not  interested  in  the  claim  as  a  creditor  or  otherwise,  nor 
related  to  the  insured)  living  nearest  the  place  of  fire,  stating  that 
he  has  examined  the  circumstances  and  believes  the  insured  has  hon¬ 
estly  sustained  loss  to  the  amount  that  such  magistrate  or  notary 
public  shall  certify. — (Lines  77-80.) 

This  clause  is  omitted  from  the  new  policy.  As  Mark 
Twain  might  have  said — just  this  one  omission  would  make 
a  reasonably  good  policy  out  of  a  policy  that  had  no  other 
clauses  in  it. 


The  provisions  of  the  new  policy  as  to  appraisal  ar 
follows : 


e  as 


159  Appraisal.  In  case  the  insured  and  this  Company  shall 

160  fail  to  agree  as  to  the  amount  of  loss  or 

161  damage,  each  shall,  on  the  written  demand  of  either,  select 

162  a  competent  and  disinterested  appraiser.  The  appraisers 

163  shall  first  select  a  competent  and  disinterested  umpire;  and 

164  failing  for  fifteen  days  to  agree  upon  such  umpire  then,  on 

165  request  of  the  insured  or  this  Company,  such  umpire  shall  be 


22 


•4 


ST7 


.  -  .  ■  • 


.  (t'j 


. 


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r 


166  selected  by  a  judge  of  a  court  of  record  in  the  state  in  which 

167  the  property  insured  is  located.  The  appraisers  shall  then 

168  appraise  the  loss  and  damage  stating  separately  sound  value 

169  and  loss  or  damage  to  each  item;  and  failing  to  agree,  shall 

170  submit  their  differences  only,  to  the  umpire.  An  award  in 

171  writing,  so  itemized,  of  any  two  when  filed  with  this  Company 

172  shall  determine  the  amount  of  sound  value  and  loss  or 

173  damage.  Each  appraiser  shall  be  paid  by  the  party  selecting 

174  him  and  the  expenses  of  appraisal  and  umpire  shall  be  paid 

175  by  the  parties  equally. 

The  old  form  read : 

In  the  event  of  disagreement  as  to  the  amount  of  loss  the  same  shall, 
as  above  provided,  be  ascertained  by  two  competent  and  disinterested 
appraisers,  the  insured  and  this  Company  each  selecting  one,  and  the 
two  so  chosen  shall  first  select  a  competent  and  disinterested  umpire; 
the  appraisers  together  shall  then  estimate  and  appraise  the  loss, 
stating  separately  sound  value  and  damage,  and,  failing  to  agree, 
shall  submit  their  differences  to  the  umpire ;  and  the  award  in  writing 
of  any  two  shall  determine  the  amount  of  such  loss ;  the  parties 
thereto  shall  pay  the  appraiser  respectively  selected  by  them  and 
shall  bear  equally  the  expenses  of  the  appraisal  and  umpire. — (Lines 
86-91.) 

The  important  changes  made  by  the  new  form,  in  so  far 
as  the  subject  of  appraisal  is  concerned,  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Compulsory  selection  of  an  umpire  by  an  impartial 
tribunal  is  provided  for.  Appraisals  under  the  old  form  fre¬ 
quently  failed  because  of  the  necessity  that  the  two  appraisers 
should  be  able  to  agree  upon  an  umpire  in  order  that  he 
might  be  selected.  Their  disagreement,  whether  from  design 
or  otherwise,  was  sufficient  to  block  the  appraisal  and  throw 
the  matter  of  loss  adjustment  into  the  courts.  In  the  year 
1913,  the  State  of  New  York,  following  the  example  of  some 
of  the  other  states,  enacted  a  law  to  the  effect  that  when  the 
appraisers  had  failed  or  neglected  for  a  space  of  ten  days 
after  both  had  been  chosen  to  agree  upon  and  select  an 
umpire,  it  should  be  lawful  for  either  the  assured  or  the  com¬ 
pany  to  apply  to  any  court  of  record  in  the  county  in  which 
the  property  was  situated,  on  five  days’  notice  to  the  other 
party,  to  appoint  a  competent  and  disinterested  umpire  (Laws 
of  1913,  Chapter  181). 

The  new  sentence  (lines  162  to  167)  is  in  line  with  the 
recent  legislation  for  the  selection  of  an  umpire  in  case  of 
failure  to  agree  and  is  undoubtedly  in  the  interest  of  the  effi¬ 
cient  adjustment  of  losses  where  only  questions  of  value  are 
involved.  Under  the  new  clause,  if  the  appraisers  fail  for 
fifteen  days  to  agree  upon  an  umpire  either  party  may,  with¬ 
out  notice  to  the  other,  apply  to  a  judge  of  any  court  of  rec¬ 
ord  in  the  state  for  the  appointment  of  such  umpire.  The 
effect  of  this  clause  should  be  for  the  future  what  it  has  been 
in  the  past,  that  is  to  say,  in  most  cases  the  opportunity  to 
compel  the  selection  of  an  umpire  results  in  the  appraisers 
agreeing  as  to  the  person  who  shall  be  selected  before  the 
expiration  of  the  fifteen-day  limit. 


23 


(2)  The  new  form  requires  that  the  appraisal  shall  be 
itemized.  To  this  end,  it  is  provided  that  the  appraisal  shall 
state  the  sound  value  and  the  loss  or  damage  “to  each  item” 
(line  169)  and  that  the  award  “so  itemized”  (line  171)  shall 
determine  the  amount.  The  purpose  of  this  change  is  to 
compel  the  appraisers  to  do  their  duty  intelligently  and  to 
avoid  the  loose  and  unsatisfactory  work  which,  in  the  past, 
has  frequently  been  prejudicial  to  one  or  the  other  of  the 
parties  in  interest. 

(3)  Another  change  in  the  new  form  is  the  addition  of 
the  word  “only”  in  line  170.  It  was  implied  in  the  old  form 
that  only  differences  arising  between  appraisers  should  be 
submitted  to  the  umpire.  But  the  failure  to  state  this  clearly 
has  resulted  in  many  cases  where  the  umpire  and  one  of  the 
appraisers  practically  make  the  award  without  participation 
by  the  other  appraiser.  The  appraisers  should  be  compelled 
to  attempt,  in  so  far  as  possible,  to  agree  before  calling  upon 
the  umpire  to  settle  their  differences. 

(4)  Under  the  old  form,  the  award  determined  only  the 
amount  of  loss  and  damage.  Under  the  new  form,  the  award 
will,  in  addition,  determine  the  sound  value  of  the  property 
(line  172).  Thus,  the  award,  in  the  future,  will  be  in  such 
form  as  to  serve  as  a  foundation  for  a  settlement  of  all  dif¬ 
ferences  as  to  value,  including  such  differences  as  may  arise 
as  to  the  relation  of  insurance  to  value,  which  becomes  of 
importance  wherever  there  is  a  question  involving  co-insur¬ 
ance. 

The  clause  as  to  the  company’s  options  now  reads  : 

176  Company’s  It  shall  be  optional  with  this  Company  to 

177  options.  take  all,  or  any  part,  of  the  articles  at  the 

178  agreed  or  appraised  value,  and  also  to 

179  repair,  rebuild,  or  replace  the  property  lost  or  damaged  with 

180  other  of  like  kind  and  quality  within  a  reasonable  time,  on 

181  giving  notice  of  its  intention  so  to  do  within  thirty  days 

182  after  the  receipt  of  the  proof  of  loss  herein  required. 

The  old  form  was  as  follows  : 

It  shall  be  optional,  however,  with  this  company  to  take  all,  or 
any  part,  of  the  articles  at  such  ascertained  or  appraised  value,  and 
also  to  repair,  rebuild,  or  replace  the  property  lost  or  damaged  with 
other  of  like  kind  and  quality  within  a  reasonable  time  on  giving 
notice  within  thirty  days  after  the  receipt  of  the  proof  herein  required, 
of  its  intention  so  to  do. — (Lines  4-5.) 

The  changes  of  phraseology  are  as  follows :  The  word 
“however”  is  omitted.  The  words  “such  ascertained”  are 
changed  to  “the  agreed.”  The  words  “of  loss”  are  added 
after  “proof”  (line  182).  The  phrase  “of  its  intention  so  to 
do”  is  transferred  so  as  to  follow  the  word  “notice.” 

The  clause  prohibiting  abandonment  of  property  (lines 
183-184)  is  substantially  unchanged. 


The  new  policy  provides: 

185  When  loss  The  amount  of  loss  or  damage  for  which 

186  payable.  this  Company  may  be  liable  shall  be  pay- 

187  able  sixty  days  after  proof  of  loss,  as  herein 

188  provided,  is  received  by  this  Company  and  ascertainment  of 

189  the  loss  or  damage  is  made  either  by  agreement  between  the 

190  insured  and  this  Company  expressed  in  writing  or  by  the 

191  filing  with  this  Company  of  an  award  as  herein  provided. 

The  old  policy  contained  two  clauses  in  reference  to  time 
of  payment,  one  expressed  in  the  affirmative,  as  follows  : 

and,  the  amount  of  loss  or  damage  having  been  thus  determined,  the 
f  )  sum  for  which  this  company  is  liable  pursuant  to  this  policy  shall  be 

payable  sixty  days  after  due  notice,  ascertainment,  estimate,  and  sat¬ 
isfactory  proof  of  the  loss  have  been  received  by  this  company  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  policy. — (Lines  3-4.) 

and  the  other  expressed  in  negative  form,  which  read  as 
follows : 

and  the  loss  shall  not  become  payable  until  sixty  days  after  the  notice, 
ascertainment,  estimate,  and  satisfactory  proof  of  the  loss  herein 
required  have  been  received  by  this  company,  including  an  award 
by  appraisers  when  appraisal  has  been  required. — (Lines  93-95.) 

Except  in  the  case  of  denial  of  liability,  which  throws  the 
claim  into  controversy  and  litigation,  the  “ascertainment”  of 
the  amount  due  under  the  policy  is  made  in  either  one  of 
two  ways : 

1.  By  agreement  between  the  insured  and  the  company, 

2.  By  award  of  appraisers. 

The  “ascertainment”  may  be  made  within  the  sixty-day 
period  allowed  for  filing  proof  of  loss.  It  may,  and  in  the 
case  of  appraisal  and  award,  usually  does  follow  that  period. 
As  a  matter  of  sound  public  policy,  as  well  as  for  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  company’s  interests,  a  means  should  be  provided 
for  compelling  the  rendition  of  a  proof  of  loss  in  connection 
with  the  payment  of  any  loss,  however  the  amount  thereof 
may  be  ascertained,  and  the  policy  clause  provides  that  the 
liability  for  payment  shall  be  sixty  days  after  the  two  acts 
necessary  to  fix  and  prove  the  amount  due,  have  been  per¬ 
formed  by  the  assured.  One  of  these  acts  is  the  filing  of 
proof  of  loss  withr  the  company,  and  the  other  is  the  ascer¬ 
tainment  of  the  amount,  either  by  written  agreement  or  the 
filing  of  an  award  of  appraisers,  depending  upon  which  of 
the  two  means  of  ascertainment  is  taken  by  the  parties 

By  the  old  form  the  time  of  payment  was  dependent,  not 
only  on  the  rendition  of  the  proof  of  loss  and  the  ascertain- 
$  )  ment  of  the  amount  due,  but  also  upon  the  giving  “due  notice” 

of  the  loss  and  an  “estimate”  thereof.  The  conditions  of 
notice  of  loss  and  estimate  thereof  as  bearing  upon  the  time 
of  payment,  are  eliminated.  In  the  old  form,  it  was  provided 
that  the  time  of  payment  was  sixty  days  after  “satisfactory 
proof  of  loss.”  The  word  “satisfactory”  has  been  omitted 
and  no  longer  qualifies  the  phrase  “proof  of  loss.”  The 
question  of  what  is  satisfactory  to  the  company  as  a  proof 


25 


of  loss  no  longer  arises  and  the  only  test  of  what  constitutes 
a  proof  of  loss  is  the  definition  thereof  as  contained  on  the 
face  of  the  policy.  If  the  proof  conforms  to  the  requirement 
of  the  policy  it  must  hereafter  be  satisfactory  to  the  com¬ 
pany. 

The  provision  as  to  limitation  of  action  on  the  policy  is 
as  follows : 

192  Suit.  No  suit  or  action  on  this  policy,  for  the 

193  recovery  of  any  claim,  shall  be  sustainable 

194  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity  unless  all  the  requirements  of 

195  this  policy  shall  have  been  complied  with,  nor  unless  corn- 

196  menced  within  twelve  months  next  after  the  fire. 

This  compares  with  the  following  language  of  the  old 
form : 

No  suit  or  action  on  this  policy,  for  the  recovery  of  any  claim, 
shall  be  sustainable  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity  until  after  full 
compliance  by  the  insured  with  all  the  foregoing  requirements,  nor 
unless  commenced  within  twelve  months  next  after  the  fire. — (Lines 
106-107.) 

The  compliance  required  by  the  old  form  “by  the  in¬ 
sured”  was  unnecessarily  restrictive.  The  compliance  which 
should  be  required  as  a  condition  precedent  to  recovery  by 
suit  is  a  compliance  with  the  terms  and  conditions  of  the 
contract,  either  by  the  party  plaintiff  to  the  suit  or  by  his 
predecessor  in  interest  under  the  contract,  or  both,  as  the 
case  may  require.  It  may  be  that  suit  is  instituted  by  the 
legal  representatives  of  the  insured  after  death  or  by  the 
legal  successor  in  case  the  insured  is  a  corporation.  It  may 
be  that  the  cause  of  action  for  loss  under  the  policy  is  as¬ 
signed  by  the  assured  after  loss.  It  may  be  that  the  suit  is 
founded  upon  a  mortgagee  interest  in  property  destroyed  and 
that  the  contract  covering  such  interest  is  valid  and  binding 
upon  the  company,  although  the  insured  has  failed  to  comply 
with  the  provisions  of  the  policy.  The  duty  of  compliance 
with  the  contract  under  the  new  clause  falls  upon  the  party 
plaintiff  to  the  suit  and  any  prior  party  to  the  contract 
through  whom  he  derives  his  interest. 

The  new  subrogation  clause  is  as  follows : 

197  Subrogation.  This  Company  may  require  from  the  insured 

198  an  assignment  of  all  right  of  recovery 

199  against  any  party  for  loss  or  damage  to  the  extent  that  pay- 

200  ment  therefor  is  made  by  this  Company. 

This  compares  with  the  language  of  the  old  policy  which 
reads : 

If  this  company  shall  claim  that  the  fire  was  caused  by  the  act 
or  neglect  of  any  person  or  corporation,  private  or  municipal,  this 
company  shall,  on  payment  of  the  loss,  be  subrogated  to  the  extent 
of  such  payment  to  all  right  of  recovery  by  the  insured  for  the  loss 
resulting  therefrom,  and  such  right  shall  be  assigned  to  this  company 
by  the  insured  on  receiving  such  payment. — (Lines  102-105.) 

Under  the  new  form  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  company 
shall  assert  the  existence  of  a  claim  for  recovery  over  against 

26 


a  third  party.  It  may  require  as  a  condition  of  payment  of 
loss  an  assignment  of  such  right  of  recovery  as  the  insured 
may  have  against  a  third  party,  leaving  the  question  of  the 
existence  of  a  valid  claim  to  be  ascertained  by  future  exam¬ 
ination  of  the  facts  bearing  upon  the  matter. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  differences  in  form, 
arrangement  and  length  as  between  the  old  and  the  new  policy 
contracts. 

The  old  standard  form  was  so  long  and  so  lacking  in 
arrangement  that  the  assured  was  required  to  read  practically 
the  entire  policy  whenever  he  desired  to  ascertain  any  of  his 
rights  or  obligations.  In  revising  the  policy,  every  effort 
was  made  to  shorten  it.  It  was  found,  however,  to  be  utterly 
impracticable  to  make  the  policy  appreciably  shorter  without 
sacrificing  either  the  substantive  rights  of  the  parties  or 
their  clear  expression.  The  old  policy  contained  2,441  words 
while  the  new  policy  contains  2,063  words,  a  shortening  to 
the  extent  of  378  words. 

The  condition  of  the  law  in  reference  to  insurance  of 
mortgagee  interests  was  found  to  require  additional  pro¬ 
visions  in  the  new  policy  not  contained  in  the  old  standard 
form.  Thus,  the  part  of  the  new  policy  devoted  to  a  defini¬ 
tion  of  the  rights  and  obligations  of  mortgagees  contains  189 
words,  whereas  the  old  policy  provision  comprised  only  73 
words,  so  that  aside  from  the  mortgagee  interest  clauses  the 
new  policy  has  been  shortened  to  the  extent  of  494  words 
out  of  a  total  of  2,441. 

While  it  was  not  feasible  to  provide  for  the  policy¬ 
holder’s  convenience  a  contract  very  much  shorter  than  the 
old  standard  form  so  far  as  the  actual  number  of  words  used, 
a  great  improvement  in  this  respect  was  effected  by  dividing 
the  policy  into  three  parts — combining  in  the  first  part  of 
the  policy  all  the  provisions  defining  the  rights  and  obliga¬ 
tions  of  the  assured  before  loss,  following  this  by  the  pro¬ 
visions  relating  to  mortgagee  interest  and  then  adding  at  the 
end  of  the  policy  all  the  provisions  applicable  after  a  loss 
has  occurred.  The  first  part  of  the  policy  under  this  classifi¬ 
cation  comprises  1,159  words  and,  thus,  the  policyholder,  for 
his  protection  and  information,  prior  to  a  loss,  is  required  to 
read  less  than  half  the  number  of  words  which  were  neces¬ 
sary  to  examine  under  the  old  standard  form.  If  the  insured 
is  a  mortgagee,  the  second  part  of  the  policy  must  be  read, 
comprising  189  words.  It  is  necessary  for  the  assured  to 
read  the  balance  of  the  policy  (comprising  716  words)  only, 
in  the  event  of  a  loss,  to  inform  himself  of  his  rights  and 
duties  after  the  happening  of  a  loss. 

The  convenience  of  the  assured  is  also  materially  in¬ 
creased  by  the  use  of  a  marginal  index. 

In  conclusion  I  shall  refer  to  a  single  point  which  may 
prove  to  be  the  most  important  feature  of  the  new  policy. 
As  the  old  policy  was  concededly  framed  by  the  companies 


27 


and  by  them  presented  to,  and  filed  with  the  Secretary  of 
State,  it  has  always  for  that  reason,  been  judicially  construed 
by  resolving  all  doubtful  points  against  the  interests  of  the 
companies  which  drew  the  contract.  The  new  policy  does 
not  admit  of  this  interpretation.  It  was  prepared  at  the  direct 
instance  of  the  New  York  Legislature.  The  work  was  done 
as  the  Legislature  prescribed,  under  the  direct  auspices  of  the 
National  Association  of  Insurance  Commissioners.  Every 
line  and  word  of  the  new  form  has  the  authority  and  the 
sanction  of  the  supervising  officers  of  the  country  acting  in 
the  general  interest  of  the  insurance  public.  There  is  no 
longer  opportunity  to  claim  that  the  policy  should  be  con¬ 
strued  against  the  interest  of  one  of  the  parties  and  in  favor 
of  the  other.  It  has  been  given  the  authority  and  the  pres¬ 
tige  of  a  clear  enactment  of  the  New  York  Legislature,  and 
in  addition  it  is  so  completely  the  work  of  the  National  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Insurance  Commissioners,  as  to  entitle  it  to  be 
called  henceforth  The  National  Insurance  Policy. 


28 


Clay  Working  Plants 


Suggestions  for  Inspection 


(pio) 

[«g) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


Suggestions  for  Inspection  of 
Clay  Working  Plants 


Clay  working  plants,  taken  as  a  class,  present  several 
distinct  fire'  hazards  which  are  common  to  all ;  but  under  the 
various  nature  of  the  product  as  put  upon  the  market,  these 
general  hazards  are  either  modified  or  aggravated  by  special 
methods  of  treatment  in  the  processes  incident  to  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  the  finished  material,  but,  at  the  same  time,  there 
appears  to  be  sufficient  similarity  in  the  general  hazards  to 
warrant  the'  segregation  of  the  whole  class  into  several  groups 
or  sub-classes,  wherein  it  may  be  expected  that  the  hazards 
developed  in  any  one  will  be  also  found  to  prevail  in  all  of 
such  sub-class,  and  in  an  attempt  to  reach  such  sub-division 
as  will  include  the  approximate  fire  hazard  of  each  group, 
the'  following  classification  has  been  adopted : 

(  Vitrified  Pipe  or  Tile. 

(1)  Common  Stone  Ware. 

(  Common  Yellow  Ware. 

1  Building  Brick. 

(2)  |  Fire  Brick. 

I  Paving  Brick. 

1  Toilet  Ware. 

(3)  l  Encaustic  Tile. 

I  Mosaic  Tile. 

1  Art  Potterv. 

(4)  Decorated  Ware. 

I  Table  Ware. 

Classes  No.  1  and  No.  2. — The  principal  fire  hazards 
due  to  the  process  methods  of  this  group  are  to  be  found 
first,  in  the  system  of  drying  the  green  stock ;  second,  in  that 
of  burning  or  firing  the  same  after  being  dried,  and  third,  in 
the  presence  and  use  of  mixed  oils  at  the  recompressing 
machine,  as  in  paving  brick  and  similar  work. 

The  method  of  producing  tile  or  pipe  consists  of  forcing 
the  prepared  clay  under  heavy  pressure  over  mandrels  inside 
of  the  mold  or  forming  device ;  when  formed  the  product  is 
first  partially  air  dried  and  transferred  to  the  hot  air  or  steam 
drying  device  and  when  sufficiently  hardened,  is  coated  with 
some  vitrifying  compound  and  burned  in  the  kilns. 


1 


So-called  “common”  stone  ware  (as  jugs,  crocks  and  the 
like)  and  yellow  ware  (bowls,  pie  dishes,  jars  and  urns)  are 
formed  by  hand  from  prepared  clay  on  a  potter’s  wheel,  dried 
under  low  steam  heat,  then  coated  with  a  glazing  compound 
and  burned  in  kilns ;  this  class  of  ware  is  seldom  ornamented 
or  decorated  to  any  extent. 

The  method  of  producing  brick  included  in  this  class  is 
practically  identical  for  each  variety  in  so  far  as  relates  to 
their  formation  from  the  prepared  clays,  the  material  being 
forced  under  heavy  pressure  through  a  press  which  may  form 
the  brick  into  separate  units,  or  in  a  ribbon  the  thickness  of 
the  brick,  from  which  the  units  are  cut  by  hand  or  machine. 

When  formed  as  above,  both  building  and  fire-brick  are 
partially  air  dried  and  then  kiln  dried  prior  to  burning  in  a 
kiln.  Paving  brick  is  treated  with  a  coating  of  heavy  mixed 
oils  as  it  is  formed  at  the  machine,  then  dried  in  tunnels 
under  hot  air  or  steam  heat,  and  burned  in  kilns. 

Drying  of  Green  Ware,  when  carried  on  inside  of  the 
main  plant,  or  in  any  combustible  structure,  can  be  approved 
only  where  low  pressure  steam  heat  is  used,  and  when  the 
steam  pipes  are  safely  arranged  and  freed  from  contact  with 
woodwork  or  other  combustible  material ;  this  method  of 
drying  to  be  accorded  preference  in  all  cases. 

When  drying  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  excess  or 
waste  heat  from  the  burning  or  firing-kilns,  it  must  be  carried 
on  in  tunnels  or  ovens  of  brick,  concrete,  or  fire-proofed  metal 
construction,  separated  from  the  main  structures  as  far  as  may 
be  practicable ;  proper  ventilation  of  the  tunnels  to  be  secured 
through  brick  stacks  or  chimneys,  and  the  doors  to  both  the 
charging-  and  discharging  ends  of  the  tunnels  should  be  of 
fire-proof  construction. 

Where  ventilation  of  the  tunnels  is  secured  by  the  action 
of  an  exhaust  fan,  the  fan-house  should  be  of  fire-proof  con¬ 
struction  and  not  prove  an  exposure  to  the  main  plant  through 
the  presence  of  unprotected  window  or  other  openings.  The 
structure  containing  the  suction  or  blowing  fan,  which  ex¬ 
hausts  the  heated  air  and  gases  from  the  burning  kilns,  should 
be  of  brick,  preferably  fire-proof  and  not  seriously  exposing 
the  main  plant  through  unprotected  window  or  door  openings. 

The  hot  air  and  gases  from  the  burning  or  firing-kilns 
should  be  conveyed  to  the  drying  tunnels  only  through  brick 
or  other  fire-proof  conduits,  preferably  under  the  surface  of 
the  ground  or  so  located  as  to  not  expose  woodwork  or  other 
combustibles  as  part  of  the  structure,  or  through  the  accumu¬ 
lation  of  refuse  or  other  combustible  material  in  contact  with 
or  contiguous  to  such  conduits. 

Where  open  flame  gas  heat  is  used  for  drying  purposes 
in  tunnels  or  kilns,  there  must  be  no  woodwork  or  other  com¬ 
bustible  material  in  the  structure,  or  in  accumulation,  exposed 
to  the  flame  or  subject  to  the  heat  generated  thereby. 


2 


1 


The  presence  and  use  of  wooden  flues  or  shafts  for  venti¬ 
lation  of  drying  tunnels  or  kilns  should  serve  to  condemn  the 
risk ;  an  exception  to  this  ruling  being  possible  only  when 
steam  heat  is  used  and  the  other  conditions  of  hazard  seem 
favorable. 

The  Carriages  or  “Gigs”  upon  which  the  green  ware  is 
conveyed  into  the  drying  tunnels  or  kilns  should  preferably 
be  wholly  of  iron  or  steel ;  wooden  slats  or  shelves  for  sup¬ 
porting  the  ware  on  same  being  objectionable  from  the  fact 
that  they  carbonize  under  heat  and  readily  ignite  at  com¬ 
paratively  low  temperature  when  in  such  condition ;  some 
manufacturers  object  to  the  use  of  metal  slats  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  apt  to  cause  the  ware  to  check  and  crack. 

Burning  or  Firing-Kilns  should  be  constructed  of  brick 
and  be  provided  with  “down-draught”  flues  to  brick  stacks ; 
to  be  fired  with  natural  or  producer  gas  flame,  or  by  coal ; 
be  located  outside  of  the  main  plant  and  not  exposing  com¬ 
bustible  material  of  construction  or  environment,  and  not  be 
under  roof  of  combustible  material. 

Storage  and  Use  of  Oils,  usually  in  large  quantity  at  the 
forming  or  recompressing  machines  in  paving  brick  works 
presents  a  marked  hazard  in  the  probable  spread  of  fire  if 
such  material  should  become  ignited,  but  the  oils  in  use  are 
practically  inert  in  relation  to  the  probability  of  spontaneous 
ignition,  as  they  are  usually  a  combination  of  vegetable  and 
mineral  oils,  with  sufficient  percentage  of  the  latter  to  prevent 
spontaneous  heating  when  in  contact  with  any  fibrous  mate¬ 
rial,  but  care  should  be  exercised  as  to  the  proper  location 
of  the  bulk  storage  and  also  to  prevent  the  presence  of  open 
light  or  flame  where  mixing  is  done,  or  where  the  mixed  oils 
are  in  use  at  the  recompressing  machines,  or  elsewhere. 

Class  No.  3. — The  hazards  incident  to  this  group  are 
somewhat  aggravated  over  those  of  classes  No.  1  and  No.  2 
in  relation  to  the  burning  or  firing-kilns,  which  are  usually 
to  be  found  located  inside  of  the  main  structures  and  under 
roof  or  floors  of  same ;  hence,  it  becomes  necessary  to  closely 
observe  that  the  kiln  walls  are  freed  from  contact  or  exposure 
to  woodwork  of  floors,  roof  or  other  combustible  material, 
by  a  clear  air  space  of  not  less  than  three  (3)  inches  all  around 
the  points  of  passage,  and  as  particularly  essential  to  safety 
that  no  combustible  material  shall  be  exposed  within  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  five  (5)  feet  horizontally,  or  less  than  ten  (10)  feet 
vertically  from  the  arch  of  the  charging-door  opening  in  the 
kiln.  Protection  against  the  vertical  exposure  of  floors,  roofs, 
or  other  combustibles  should  be  secured  by  the  presence  of 
a  metallic  hood  firmly  and  substantially  attached  to  the'  walls 
of  the  kiln,  directly  over  the  arch  of  the  charging-door  open¬ 
ing;  this  shield  or  hood  should  extend  not  less  than  18  inches 
from  the  wall  of  the  kiln  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  its 
outer  edge  be  deflected,  in  order  that  the  heat  escaping  from 


3 


the  kiln  when  opened  for  discharge  may  be  “banked-up”  and 
carried  to  the  outer  air  through  the  roof  by  a  metallic  vent 
or  flue,  firmly  attached  to  the  metal  hood ;  a  partially  satis¬ 
factory  method  of  ventilation  may  be  secured  by  cutting  away 
the  roof  boards  over  the  arch  of  the  charging  door,  the  area 
of  such  vent  to  be  equal  to  at  least  1  Y\  times  the  area  of  the 
door  opening. 

When  flat-top  or  low-arched-top  kilns  are  in  use,  as  fre¬ 
quently  found  in  encaustic  or  mosaic  tile  plants,  the  vertical 
vents  in  such  tops  should  in  all  cases  show  a  clearance  of  ten 
(10)  feet  to  the  roof  timbers,  unless  properly  provided  with 
firmly  fixed  metal  hoods  for  deflecting  the  rising  heated  air, 
and  when  the  limit  of  such  clearance  does  not  exceed  five  (5) 
feet,  these  deflecting  hoods  should  be  provided  with  vent 
pipes  through  the  roof,  and  under  both  such  conditions  the 
roof  immediately  over  the  kilns  should  be  amply  ventilated 
by  louvers  or  other  open  vents  of  such  area  as  to  insure 
prompt  carrying  off  of  the  heated  air. 

Neglect  of,  or  the  absence  of,  such  ventilating  devices  or 
their  practical  equivalents,  should  serve  to  condemn  the  risk 
where  possibility  of  ignition  of  surroundings  is  apparent. 

The  method  of  producing  toilet  ware  from  prepared 
clays  entails  much  hand  work  in  building  up  units  of  large 
size,  which  are  not  subject  to  frequent  rehandling  or  diversity 
of  manipulation,  and  is  generally  without  the  hazards  incident 
to  ornamentation  and  decoration,  and  may  therefore  be  rated 
as  being  the  lesser  hazard  of  the  class  to  which  it  has  been 
assigned. 

Encaustic  and  mosiac  tile  are  formed  in  dies  under  heavy 
steam  or  hydraulic  pressure,  the  prepared  clay  used  being  in 
granular  form,  slightly  moistened ;  leaving  the  die  the  tile 
are  dried  under  low  pressure  steam  heat  and  then  placed  in 
fire-clay  saggers  and  burned  in  kilns,  from  which  process 
they  emerge  as  “biscuit”  ware  showing  an  unglazed  surface 
upon  which  the  ornamental  or  decorative  design  is  applied 
by  the  use  of  various  metallic  oxides  thinned  with  turpentine 
and  held  in  solution  or  in  the  form  of  paste ;  the  ornamented 
face  is  then  coated  with  a  slip-glaze  and  the  design  is  fixed 
by  firing  in  special  furnaces. 

The'  finished  tiles  are  separately  graded  for  accuracy  of 
dimensions  and  trueness  of  surface  by  automatic  machines 
which  mark  imperfect  ware  for  ready  identification. 

These  plants  are  usually  of  extremely  large  area,  without 
fire  wall  divisions  in  the  various  separated  structures.  Sag¬ 
gers  are  usually  made  on  the  premises  by  hand  power  from 
refractory  clays  and  are  burned  in  specially  designed  kilns. 

The  process  methods  incident  to  the  production  of  or¬ 
dinary  table-ware  are  somewhat  less  in  hazard  than  those 
common  to  art  and  decorated  ware  with  which  it  has  been 
classed,  from  the  fact  that  the  processes  are  more  simple  up 
to  the  point  where  the  ware  enters  the  burning  kiln,  while 


4 


1 


under  present  general  practice  ornamentation  of  this  class 
of  ware  is  confined  to  .the  application  of  decalcomania  designs 
by  transfer  to  the'  glazed  ware,  which  is  then  fired.  This 
method  of  decoration  necessitates  the  presence  on  the  prem¬ 
ises  of  large  quantities  of  prepared  paper,  and  some  accumula¬ 
tion  of  the  waste  from  same. 

In  high  grade  or  china  pottery  plants  more  extensive 
decoration  is  usual,  and  includes  high  class  hand  painting, 
both  under  and  over-glaze  by  the  use  of  colors  derived  from 
metallic  oxides  thinned  with  turpentine,  the  process  adding 
materially  to  the  cost  of  the  ware  and  necessitating  frequent 
handling  and  firing  in  special  furnaces  or  kilns. 

The  Process  Hazards  of  classes  No.  3  and  No.  4,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  general  hazards  above  enumerated  as  being  com¬ 
mon  to  clay  workers,  include  specific  hazards  due  to  the 
multiplication  of  heat-producing  devices  in  use,  such  as  “slip 
glaze”  and  enameling  kilns,  decorating  and  gilding  kilns,  and 
“frit”  kilns,  the  nature  of  the  latter  being  similar  to  a  glass¬ 
melting  furnace,  including  the  high  temperature  common  to 
same,  the  raw  stock  used  being  similar.  The  drying  of  the 
green  ware  is  necessarily  secured  at  the  lowest  possible  tem¬ 
perature  ;  hence,  steam  at  low  pressure  is  the  prevailing 
method.  Drying  of  the  various  grades  of  clay  used  is  also 
compulsory  at  a  low  temperature,  but  is  most  frequently 
secured  by  fire  heat  in  brick  furnaces,  without  hazard  from 
combustion  of  the  raw  stock. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  specific  hazards  of 
Class  No.  3,  which,  as  a  whole,  include  the  use  of  heat,  are 
susceptible  to  control  as  to  the  fire  hazard  under  the  sugges¬ 
tions  above  enumerated  as  common  to  the  clay-working  class, 
i.  e.,  prevention  of  contact  or  serious  exposure  of  woodwork 
or  other  combustibles  to  the  devices  generating  he'at  and  to 
the  heated  air  emanating  from  same  by  radiation,  or  the 
direct  flow  of  such  heat  vertically  or  horizontally. 

Preparation  of  Pigments  for  Decorating. — These  pig¬ 
ments  are  usually  oxides  of  various  metals,  and  in  their  raw 
or  unmixed  state  present  no  particular  fire  hazard ;  it  is  only 
when  volatile  solvents  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
these  pigments  sufficiently  fluid  or  plastic  for  application  to 
the  ware  that  any  special  hazard  is  to  be  apprehended  from 
their  presence  or  use.  However,  it  is  essential  that  careful 
inquiry  and  investigation  should  be  made  as  to  the  nature, 
quantity  and  location  of  the  bulk  storage  of  such  solvents, 
and  also  as  to  the  quantity  likely  to  be  in  stock  for  daily 
use,  which  latter  supply  should  be  as  small  as  possible,  and  be 
contained  in  metallic  vessels  which  would  not  permit  the 
escape  of  the  volatile  or  its  vapors  except  when  in  immediate 
use  (safety  cans). 

In  tinting  or  shading  art  and  decorated  ware,  both  in 
under  and  over-glaze  ornamentation,  the  coloring  matter  ir_ 

rf 

5 


solution  is  sprayed  on  the  ware  under  air  pressure,  the  sol¬ 
vent  in  general  use  being  turpentine,  though  in  some  varieties 
of  cheap  ware  benzine  or  naphtha  may  be  used ;  the  spraying 
device  is  usually  attached  to  a  rubber  tube  which  is  liable 
to  leak  through  deterioration  in  use,  thus  permitting  the 
escape  of  the  solvent  or  its  vapors. 

While  the  ware  undergoing  this  treatment  is  usually  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  metal  hood  or  screen  with  an  exhaust  fan 
attached  to  carry  off  the  fumes,  no  open  light  or  flame  should 
be  permitted  near  the  operating  stand. 

The  Raw  Stock  used  in  the  production  of  the  finished 
ware  or  material  peculiar  to  Class  No.  3  (as  also  in  Class 
No.  4)  includes  a  wide  range  of  grade  or  quality  in  the  clays 
used  in  the  mixtures  necessary  for  the  accomplishment  of 
effects,  rising  in  value  from  the  common  or  native  red  clays 
to  the  high-priced  German  or  other  foreign  imported  article; 
but  the  manipulation  of  such  raw  stock,  after  it  leaves  the 
clay-drying  device  and  until  it  passes  from  the  hydraulic 
forming  press  or  the  potters’  wheel  to  the  green  ware  dry 
room,  presents  no  greater  hazard  than  such  as  is  incident  to 
the  working  of  the  moist  or  fluid  clays  through  the  various 
processes  of  crushing,  pugging,  elutriation  with  water,  grad¬ 
ing  of  the  fluid  mass  through  bolting  reels ;  solidification  of 
the  semi-fluid  mass  by  pressure,  drainage  and  evaporation, 
the  moist  deposit  thus  produced  being  disintegrated  in  a 
granulating  mill. 

Each  of  these  manipulations  may  be  repeated  a  number 
of  times  before  a  satisfactory  condition  of  the  clay  is  secured, 
and  each  of  such  processes  present  conditions  in  retardation 
of  rather  than  in  aggravation  of  the  fire  hazard.  The  various 
grades  of  clay  are  usually  deposited  in  separate'  bins  or  com¬ 
partments,  and  the  raw  material  is  not  then  liable  to  other 
than  slight  surface  deterioration  as  the  result  of  contact  with 
heat  or  fire,  but  is  subject  to  damage  by  water. 

Packing  Material  and  Package-Making  are  hazards  which 
may  be  considered  as  incidental  to  Classes  3  and  4,  while  fre¬ 
quently  absent  from  Classes  1  and  2,  but  in  any  case  should 
secure  attention  as  to  the  bulk  storage  of  the  packing  material, 
its  location,  and  the  removal  of  the  day’s  excess  from  the 
plant. 

Buildings. — Note  material  and  class  of  construction ; 
nature  of  interior  finish ;  floor  openings,  and  protection  to 
same ;  kind  of  floors ;  nature  of  roof  covering  and  support ; 
character  of  walls  separating  buildings  from  each  other  or 
into  sections ;  protection  to  openings  in  same ;  mutual  exposure 
of  buildings  to  be  stated,  and,  if  necessary,  make  diagram  of 
same,  or  refer  to  map  location. 

Warehouses.- — Note  size  and  nature  of  structure,  and  its 
position  in  relation  to  the  main  plant;  nature  of  goods  and 
packages  stored. 


Management. — Note  especially  the  items  of  cleanliness 
and  order ;  observe  matters  of  discipline,  care  of  fire  appliances 
and  the  appreciation  of  evident  fire  hazards,  incident  to  proc 
esses  or  methods,  discovering  same  by  proper  questioning  of 
assured  on  such  matters. 

Motive  Power. — Describe  class  of  power  used,  and  note 
general  conditions ;  if  gas  or  gasolene  engine  is  used,  note 
particularly  whether  the  exhaust-pipe  is  properly  freed  from 
contact  with  wood  or  other  combustible  material ;  note 
whether  the  equalizing  regulator  on  gas  engine  supply  is  of 
rubber  or  of  metal ;  note  smokestack,  if  any. 

Fire  Appliances. — Describe  fully,  noting  public  water  sup¬ 
ply,  size  of  mains  and  pressure  in  same;  location  and  number 
of  public  hydrants  available;  character  of  public  fire  depart¬ 
ment,  and  distance  of  nearest  apparatus  from  the  plant ;  nature 
of  fire-alarm  at  plant. 

Note  especially  all  private  fire  appliance's,  including  the 
fire  pump,  stating  its  capacity,  the  nature  and  volume  of  its 
water  supply,  bearing  in  mind  that  ordinary  trade  service 
pumps  are  not  fitted  for  reliable  fire  service  and  are  seldom 
entitled  to  credit  as  such ;  investigate  sprinkler  equipment, 
standpipes,  hose,  extinguishers,  fire  buckets  and  barrels, 
noting  whether  same  are  in  condition  for  efficient  service  and 
the  management  familiar  with  their  operation. 

In  General. — Investigate  as  well  as  possible  the  financial 
standing  of  the  concern  or  assured ;  note  whether  signs  of 
prosperity  for  the  future  and  present  condition  of  the  trade. 
Note  defects  and  suggest  the  proper  remedy  for  same,  and, 
finally,  give  expression  to  your  personal  opinion  of  the  risk, 
and  nominate  the  net  line  to  be  carried  by  the  Company,  and 
the  rate  at  which  it  can  be  assumed. 


New  York,  July,  1915. 


7 


1 


Cement  Plants 

...and... 

Plaster  Mills 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


(Confidential) 


Cement  Plants 


1 


Before  attempting-  to  give  consideration  to  the  various 
processes  and  fire  hazards  incident  to  the  manufacture  of 
Cements,  and  without  entering  upon  the1  field  of  historical 
data  of  this  industry,  interesting  as  it  is,  it  appears  proper  to 
devote  some  space  to  the  recital  of  the  remarkable  growth  of 
the  Portland  cement  industry  since  1890,  when  the  large 
demand  for  this  material  in  construction  work  stimulated 
activity  in  the  trade  to  place  domestic  production  in  competi¬ 
tion  with  that  of  foreign  manufacture,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  success  attending  the  use  of  the  rotary  kiln  in  place  of 
those  of  intermittent  action  and  the  general  advance  in  the 
science  of  manufacturing  cement,  served  to  interest  capital, 
and  many  new  plants  were  established,  the  list  of  new  venture's 
since  that  date  is  remarkable  for  its  number,  and  the  future 
holds  promise  of  continued  and  profitable  increase. 

In  1891  the  total  consumption  of  Portland  cement  in  the 
United  States  is  stated  at  3,443,126  barrels,  of  which  domestic 
plants  produced  only  some  13% — in  1899  the  total  net  con¬ 
sumption  is  stated  as  being  7,650,382  barrels,  of  which  domes¬ 
tic  concerns  furnished  73.9%,  while  the  official  figures  for 
1906  show  domestic  production  of  Portland  cement  to  have 
reached  46,463,424  barrels  of  which  only  8.5%  is  credited  to 
wet  process  plants.  This  remarkable  increase  is  not  an  evi¬ 
dence  of  overproduction,  but  is  indicative  of  a  healthy  growth 
in  the  demand  for  the  material,  due  to  the  ever  broadening 
uses  to  which  Portland  cement  may  be  put,  and  to  its  superior¬ 
ity  over  natural  or  Rosendale  cement  under  all  conditions 
where  cement  may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  displacement 
of  Rosendale  cement  by  Portland  has  become  so  widespread 
and  general  as  to  cause  a  marked  reduction  in  the  production 
of  the  former,  many  of  such  plants  having  been  dismantled 
and  abandoned,  while  in  other  instances  they  have  been  and 
are  being  converted  into  the  Portland  class  at  great  expense 
due  to  the  abandonment  of  old  machinery  and  appliances  and 
the  substitution  of  new. 


1 


The  Portland  cement  industry  is  a  growing  and  pros¬ 
perous  one ;  the  demand  for  high  grade  material  is  practically 
without  limit  and  the  supply  of  standard  grade  Portland 
hardly  equal  to  the  demand,  hence',  new  plants  will  be  estab¬ 
lished  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  trade,  and  as  in  almost  every 
state  of  the  Union  there  may  be  found  large  deposits  of  lime¬ 
stone  and  clay  or  shale  suitable  for  the  production  of  stand¬ 
ard  Portland  cement,  the  industry  may  be  expected  to  expand 
in  response  to  the  growing  demands,  and  under  proper  condi¬ 
tions  as  to  construction  and  equipment,  the  class  should  prove 
profitable  as  commercial  ventures. 

The  initial  cost  of  a  complete  Portland  cement  plant  is 
high,  it  being  stated  on  good  authority  that  in  a  wet  process 
plant  producing  1,000  barrels  per  day,  the  investment  for  the 
plant  and  equipment,  without  provision  for  working  capital 
in  reserve  will  range  from  $50,000  to  $60,000  per  rotary  kiln, 
while  a  modern  dry  system  plant  and  its  equipment  will  range 
from  $85,000  to  over  $110,000  per  kiln,  where  the  output  runs 
as  high  as  1,500  barrels  per  day:  doubling  the  output  is  said 
tO'  reduce  the  cost  of  production  by  about  ten  cents  per  barrel. 
While  the  initial  cost  is  high,  the  margin  for  profitable  opera¬ 
tion  appears  to  be  wide  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  1900  the 
cost  per  barrel  of  cement  made  by  the  wet  or  marl  process 
averaged  66  cents  and  under  the'  dry  (limestone  and  clay) 
process  the  average  was  55  cents,  while  the  quoted  mnr- 
price  for  Standard  Portland  in  large  quantities  was  about 
$2.00  per  barrel.  Under  improved  methods  of  production 
since  that  date  the  cost  price  has  doubtless  been  appreciably 
reduced,  while  the  value  per  barrel  produced  in  1906  seems 
to  average  about  $1.13  including  all  grades,  good,  bad  and 
indifferent  in  quality.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  plant  of  less 
than  four  kiln  capacity  would  find  it  difficult  to  profitably 
meet  present  competition,  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  reck¬ 
less  expansion  in  the  number  of  doubtful  ventures  is  to  be 
apprehended  in  the  near  future. 

The  classes  of  cement  which  are  to  be  considered  in  the 
following  remarks,  while  differing  in  many  particulars  as  to 
individual  characteristics,  are  each  known  as  “hydraulic  ce¬ 
ments.”  A  general  and  inclusive  definition  of  the  class  known 
commercially  as  “Cement”  is  as  follows : 

Specifically,  cement  is  a  mortar  or  material  which  is 
capable  of  solidifying  when  in  contact  with  water,  without 
change  of  volume  or  notable  evolution  of  heat.  It  differs 
from  lime  in  that  the  latter  crumbles,  expands  and  gives  off 
heat  when  exposed  to  water  or  excess  moisture.  A  proper 
proportion  of  clay  mixed  with  lime  has  a  tendency  to  check 
crumbling  and  the  evolution  of  heat  and  to  bring  about  that 
quality  of  hydraulicity  which  characterizes  cement. 

Included  within  this  broad  classification  the  most  im¬ 
portant  and  valuable  of  the  hydraulic  cements  is  that  known 
as  “Portland,”  which  is  an  artificial  cement  produced  from 


2 


the  intimate  mixture  of  limestone  or  marl  (carbonates  of  lime) 
and  clay,  with  limited  percentage  of  alumina  and  silica; 
each  of  these  ingredients  being  accurately  proportioned  in  the 
raw  stock  mixture  before  being  burned.  In  some  localities 
there  are  to  be  found  natural  deposits  of  so-called  “cement 
rock”  wherein  the  proportions  of  lime  and  clay  are  such  as 
to  render  it  fitted  for  the  production  of  Portland  cement  with¬ 
out  additions  of  any  kind.  Blast  furnace  slag  is  also  used,  in 
conjunction  with  lime,  to  produce  Portland  cement,  and  this 
combination  seems  to  have  a  promising  future  before  it. 

Second  in  importance  to  Portland  in  this  classification  is 
that  known  as  “Natural  cement”  (also  known  as  “Rosendale” 
and  “Lime-rock  cement”)  which  is  produced  from  the  so- 
called  cement  rock  above  mentioned  without  reference  to  the 
proportion  of  lime  or  clay  constituting  its  composition,  hence, 
the  process  of  making  this  class  of  cement  is  always  dependent 
upon  chance  for  results,  and  while  it  is  suited  for  many  pur¬ 
poses  in  construction  work,  its  use  is  gradually  falling  off 
for  important  undertakings  where  reliability  is  an  essential. 

Third  in  the  classification,  gauged  simply  on  the  amount 
of  the  material  produced,  comes  Slag  or  “Puzzolan”  cement, 
which  is  produced  by  the  mixture  of  blast  furnace  and/or 
foundry  slag  with  limestone  in  proper  proportions.  As  in 
this  process  are  used  hitherto  waste  materials  it  is  to  be 
presumed  that  its  future  will  show  wide  extension,  though 
its  past  growth  has  been  slow.  None  of  this  class  came  under 
inspection  by  the  writer,  hence,  no  attempt  at  description  will 
be  undertaken. 

NATURAL  CEMENT 

The  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  stipulates 
that  “this  term  shall  be  applied  to  the  finely  pulverized  prod¬ 
uct  resulting  from  the  calcination  of  an  argillaceous  limestone 
at  a  temperature  only  sufficient  to  drive  off  the  carbonic  acid 
gas.”  Tests  of  neat  cement  briquettes  to  show  initial  set  in 
not  less  than  ten  minutes ;  hard-set  in  not  more  than  three 
hours ;  to  show  a  tensile  strength  of  50-100  pounds  at  end  of 
24  hours  and  of  200-300  at  end  of  28  days.  (It  is  to  be  noted 
that  no  specifications  as  to  proportions  of  lime  and  clay  or 
other  material  are  stipulated. — G.) 

Natural  cement  is  secured  from  cement  rock  or  hydraulic 
limestone,  which  is  a  combination  of  lime  and  clay,  in  varying 
proportions ;  it  is  found  in  natural  deposits  of  large  area  in 
Ulster  county,  N.  Y.,  in  the  Lehigh  valley  in  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey,  in  southeastern  Indiana,  and  elsewhere  in 
smaller  quantity.  The  preparation  of  cement  from  this  rock 
is  one  of  the  most  simple  nature,  it  being  only  necessary  to 
burn  the  raw  stone  in  open  top  kilns,  much  like  the  lime  kiln, 
grind  the  product  to  the  proper  degree  of  fineness  and  place 
it  on  the  market. 


3 


The  kilns  are  usually  constructed  of  iron,  lined  with  fire¬ 
brick,  tapering  toward  the  bottom  where  are  placed  grate- 
bars,  below  which  are  pits  into  which  the  calcined  rock  is 
dumped ;  process  of  operation  is  to  make  alternate  layers  of 
fuel  and  rock,  ignite  the  fuel  and  draw  off  the  calcined  rock 
from  the  bottom  about  every  72  hours,  the  operation  being 
continuous,  more  fuel  and  rock  being  added  from  top  of  the 
kiln  as  the  calcined  material  is  removed  from  below.  These 
kilns  are  usually  ranged  in  parallel  groups,  with  track  for 
removal  of  burned  material  between,  and  are  generally  with¬ 
out  covering  or  enclosure. 

The  burned  rock  passes  from  the  kilns  directly  to  the 
mills,  first  through  a  crushing  mill  or  coarse  grinder,  then  to 
a  screen,  the  finest  dust  passing  to  barrels  as  cement,  the  tail¬ 
ings  going  back  to  the  coarse  mill  for  regrinding,  while  the 
bulk  of  the  crushed  rock  passes  through  this  screen  to  the 
finishing  mill  which  is  usually  a  buhr-mill,  whence  it  is  again 
screened  and  barrelled  or  bagged  as  finished  cement.  The  mill 
buildings  are  usually  of  light  frame  construction,  detached 
from  the  kilns,  and  are  seldom  provided  with  other  than 
wooden  elevator  legs  and  storage  bins,  this  condition  present¬ 
ing  an  aggravated  hazard,  as  the  ground  rock  is  frequently 
hot  enough  to  set  fire  to  the  woodwork  of  the  elevators  and 
bins,  even  when  iron  lined.  Aside  from  this  special  feature, 
the  inherent  hazards  of  the  class  are  mild,  being  principally 
from  friction  at  bearings  from  gritty  nature  of  the  product, 
and  at  screw  conveyors  if  encased  in  wood,  when  movement 
of  the  material  is  retarded  by  “choking”  of  the  screw,  these 
being  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  hazards  to  be  looked  for  in 
manufacturing  plants  of  all  kinds. 

The  general  impression  of  the  class,  so  far  as  inspections 
have  gone,  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  owing  to  the  rather 
flimsy  and  unfinished  nature  of  construction,  general  care¬ 
lessness  evidenced  in  operation  and  management  and  the  cheap 
class  of  help.  The  machinery  used  is  simple  and  not  of  ex¬ 
pensive  character,  hence,  the  values  at  a  plant  are  not  usually 
large ;  in  southern  Indiana  such  plants  are'  found  to  range 
from  three  to  over  thirty  kilns  each,  with  an  average  possible 
output  of  about  100  barrels  per  day  per  kiln,  many  of  them 
being  operated  but  part  time  and  under  individual  ownership, 
though  most  of  the  plants  in  that  region  are  said  to  be  in  a 
“trust,”  or  working  under  an  agreement  whereby  the  larger 
plants  take  care  of  the  smaller  ones  while  idle  by  apportion¬ 
ment  of  their  respective  quotas  of  operative  capacity. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT 

Portland  cement  differs  from  natural  cement  in  that  the 
ingredients  entering  into  its  composition  (principally  lime 
and  clay  with  alumina  and  silica)  are  infrequently  found  in 
such  natural  proportions  as  to  insure  the  production  of  a 


cement  of  uniform  quality,  it  being-  an  axiom  in  general  ac¬ 
ceptance  that  “to  accurately  proportion  the  raw  materials  and 
to  perfect  an  intimate  mixture  of  them  are  the  prime  factors 
in  making  good  Portland  cement.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  more  exactly  the  proportions  are  maintained  the  greater 
the  uniformity  of  the  cement;  the  more  homogeneous  the 
mixture  and  the  finer  the  state  of  division  of  its  particles,  the 
greater  the  strength  and  hydraulic  energy  of  the  product.” 
(Lewis.) 

Plence,  Portland  cement  is  usually  termed  an  artificial 
cement,  and  in  the  specifications  for  a  standard  of  quality,  it 
is  stipulated  by  The  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials, 
that,  “this  term  is  applied  to  the  finely  pulverized  product 
resulting  from  the  calcination  to  incipient  fusion  of  an  intimate 
mixture  of  properly  proportioned  argillaceous  and  calcareous 
materials,  and  to  which  no  addition  greater  than  3%  has  been 
made  subsequent  to  calcination.”  Tests  of  neat  cement  bri¬ 
quettes  to  show  initial-set  in  not  less  than  30  minutes  and 
hard-set  in  not  more  than  10  hours;  to  have  a  tensile  strength 
of  150-200  pounds  at  the  end  of  24  hours,  and  of  550-650 
pounds  at  the  end  of  28  days.  (Compare  with  definition  of 
Natural  cement.) 

The  two  essential  ingredients  in  the  manufacture  of  Port¬ 
land  cement  are  lime  (60-65%)  and  clay  (40-25%)  ;  the  former 
is  found  widely  .distributed  throughout  the  country  in  form 
of  limestone,  and  less  general  and  in  smaller  volume  in  the 
shape  of  marl,  while  deposits  of  clay  suitable  for  the  purpose 
are  usually  found  in  the  vicinity  of  limestone  and  marl  de¬ 
posits.  In  addition  to  these  materials  which  are  artificially 
mixed  in  proper  proportions  to  produce  Portland  cement,  there 
are.  as  noted  under  Natural  cement,  large  deposits  of  cement 
rock  in  the  Lehigh  valley  region  which  is  so  proportioned  in 
its  natural  contents  of  lime  and  clay  as  to  be  fit  for  the  proj 
duction  of  Portland  cement  without  additions  of  either  to 
balance,  while  in  the  same  quarry  portions  of  the  deposit  may 
need  such  additions  to  secure  proper  results,  in  which  case 
limestone  and  clay  of  proper  composition  are  to  be  found  in 
the  vicinity. 

There  are  two  methods  of  producing  Portland  cement  in 
general  use  in  this  country,  known  respectively  as  the  “dry” 
and  the  “wet”  process,  the  former  class  including  practically 
all  of  the  plants  using  limestone  and  clay,  or  natural  cement 
rock  as  the  raw  material,  while  in  the  wet  process  are  included 
those  plants  in  which  marl  and  clay  form  the  raw  stock.  (It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  only  about  8.5%  of  the  total  output 
of  Portland  cement  made  in  the  United  States  in  1906  was 
produced  from  marl  by  the  wet  process,  the  plants  of  this 
character  being  principally  in  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Michigan  and 
are  usually  to  be  found  located  at  or  near  the  shores  of  shal¬ 
low  lakes  of  glacial  origin.) 


T* 

0 


THE  DRY  PROCESS 

In  the  dry  process  the  limestone  or  cement  rock  is  blasted 
out  at  the  quarry  beds,  elevated  to  a  stone  crusher  where  it  is 
roughly  broken,  then  passed  to  a  direct  fire  heated  dryer, 
usually  a  rotary  iron  cylinder  averaging  5x50  feet  and  set  at 
a  slight  inclination  to  the  horizon,  the  fire  being  at  the  delivery 
end  and  the  products  of  combustion  passing  through  the  cyl¬ 
inder  and  over  the  broken  rock ;  passing  from  the  dryer  the 
•rock  is  further  broken  in  iron  mills  and  elevated  or  carried 
on  belt  conveyors  to  raw  stock  bins,  or  may  go  direct  to  bins 
from  the  dryer  if  sufficiently  reduced  in  size ;  clay  from  the 
pit  or  cars  is  dried  in  cylinders  as  noted  for  the  rock,  ground 
in  edge-runner  or  tube  mills,  conveyed  to  stock  bins  and 
mixed  with  the  crushed  rock ;  the  combined  clay  and  lime¬ 
stone  is  then  transferred  to  the  “raw  mills,”  where  it  is  usually 
ground  in  ball  mills  and  finished  in  tube  mills  to  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  fine  meal ;  the  ground  raw  stock  may  then  pass 
to  screens  for  grading,  or  go  direct  to  iron  feed  hoppers 
placed  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  rotary  burning  kilns.  These 
kilns  are  constructed  of  steel,  cylindrical  in  shape,  ranging 
from  5  to  8  feet  in  diameter  and  from  50  to  130  feet  in  length 
(one  plant  proposes  putting  in  kilns  200  feet  long),  lined  with 
fire  brick  and  set  at  a  slight  inclination  to  the  horizon  from 
feed  to  delivery  end,  and  are  slowly  rotated  by  individual 
motors  or  engines,  and  are  heated  by  the  combustion  of  finely 
comminuted  bituminous  coal  fed  at  the  delivery  end  of  the 
kilns  under  an  air  blast ;  the  heat  generated  ranging  from 
2,500  to  2,800  degrees  Fahr. 

The  finely  ground  raw  stock  passes  slowly  through  the 
length  of  the  rotating  cylinder,  subjected  to  a  rapidly  rising 
temperature  as  it  approaches  the  delivery  end  of  the  device, 
from  which  it  is  delivered  to  the  cooling  device  at  a  white 
heat  in  the  shape  of  a  pebbly  “clinker.”  The  method  of  cool¬ 
ing  the  clinker  is  not  uniform  in  all  of  the  plants  inspected, 
but  the  general  results  are  identical  in  that  the  clinker  usually 
becomes  thoroughly  cool  before  it  is  passed  to  the  storage’ 
bins  or  feed  hoppers  of  the  clinker  mills.  The  method  in  use 
for  grinding  and  finishing  the  cooled  clinker  into  commercial 
cement,  are  almost  as  varied  as  are  the  ideas  of  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  plant,  but  as  a  rule  the  clinker  passes  from  the 
feed  hoppers  to  ball  or  Griffin  mills  for  the  first  grinding,  and 
then  to  the  tube  mills  for  finishing;  from  these  it  may  go  to 
screen  or  bolts  for  grading,  and  thence  by  conveyors  to  the 
finished  stock  warehouses,  where  it  is  usually  stored  in  open 
bins  for  sixty  days  or  more  before  being  packed  in  barrels 
or  bags  and  shipped. 

Coal  used  as  fuel  at  kilns, and  at  boilers  is  of  bituminous 
character  of  the  so-called  “high  steaming”  class ;  bulk  stock 
is  usually  stowed  in  open  piles,  but  may  be  found  under  cover 
or  even  inside  of  the  coal  grinding  house.  Practically  all  of 
such  coal  is  prone  to  spontaneous  heating  in  piles,  this  tend- 


ency  being  aggravated  when  the  ground  coal  is  allowed  to 
accumulate  in  heaps.  In  the  preparation  of  coal  for  use  at 
the  kilns  it  is  first  passed  through  a  crusher  or  rough-mill, 
then  to  direct  fire  heated  dryers,  elevated  to  iron  hoppers  and 
fed  to  Griffin  or  other  pulverizing  mills,  usually  located  in 
the  same  compartment  as  the  drying  cylinder.  In  the  best 
practice  the  pulverized  coal  passes  from  the  mills  by  air  blast 
to  and  through  a  dust  collector,  and  thence  by  iron  conveyors 
to  the  feed  hoppers  at  the  delivery  end  of  the'  kilns,  where, 
as  above  explained  it  is  consumed  within  the  kiln  under  air 
blast;  in  other  instances  the  pulverized  coal  is  elevated  to  a 
screw  conveyor  direct  from  the  mills  and  thence  to  the  feed 
hoppers,  as  above ;  again,  the  pulverized  material  may  be  piled 
on  the  floor  in  the  dry  house,  or  be  stowed  in  bins  inside  of 
or  attached  thereto ;  both  conditions  being  unsafe. 

THE  WET  PROCESS 

The  operation  of  a  “wet  process'  plant  differs  from  that 
of  a  “dry  process”  only  up  to  the  point  where  the  mixed  in¬ 
gredients  enter  the  rotary  kilns,  from  which  latter  point  the 
methods  and  hazards  are  identical. 

In  the  wet  process  the  raw  stock  consists  of  marl  and 
clay,  (an  exception  as  to  class  of  raw  stock  may  be  noted  here, 
as  discovered  at  a  plant  where  the  marl  deposit  had  become 
exhausted ;  here,  limestone  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  was  mixed 
with  clay  to  form  “slurry,”)  both  being  handled  while  in  a 
moist  condition.  Marl  is  a  natural  deposit  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  ranging  from  40  to  97%  of  carbonate;  it  is  found  in 
the  marsh  lands  at  the  borders  of  lakes  and  under  the  water 
of  same  at  practically  all  depths,  and  varies  in  thickness  of 
deposit  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet.  In  operation  the  marl 
is  secured  from  its  place  of  deposit  by  the  use  of  steam 
dredges,  dumped  into  scows  and  towed  to  the  works,  or  it 
may  go  from  the  dredge  to  dump-cars  on  tramways  operated 
by  steam,  rope,  motor  or  animal  power ;  the  marl  may  reach 
the  works  in  a  semi-solid  state,  if  from  the  marsh  land,  but 
it  usually  is  of  a  pasty  consistency,  say  60%  water,  and  in  this 
condition  may  be  forced  to  the  raw  stock  bins  by  air  pressure 
from  the  dredge,  or  be  lifted  by  pumps  at  the  works,  in  which 
case  it  has  been  freed  from  stones  and  other  extraneous  mat¬ 
ter  by  a  separator  on  the  dredge,  this  operation  otherwise 
taking  place  inside  of  the  mills ;  from  the  separator  the  wet 
marl  goes  to  the  wet-pan  mill,  edge  runners  and  usually  the 
clay  is  mixed  with  it  and  the  combined  material  is  ground  in 
the  presence  of  water ;  thence  it  passes  to  the  tube  mills,  some¬ 
times,  in  the  older  mills  to  buhr  stones,  and  is  finely  com¬ 
minuted  ;  it  is  then  termed  “slurry”  and  is  passed  to  an  agitator 
or  mixer,  then  to  slurry  storage  tanks  (where  agitation  is  con¬ 
tinued  by  air  pressure  to  prevent  stratification),  from  which 
it  is  elevated  to  hopper  feed  tanks,  over  the  feed  ends  of  the 
kilns,  or  it  may  be  forced  to  that  point  by  pump  or  by  air 


7 


pressure.  The  slurry  enters  the  kiln  in  a  moist  condition, 
holding  from  35  to  45%  of  water  which  is  vaporized  and 
driven  off  as  steam  as  the  slurry  slowly  progresses  through 
the  kiln  to  the  delivery  end  of  the  device.  The  clinker  produced 
in  this  process  is  usually  coarser  and  more  lumpy  than  that 
of  the  dry  system,  thus  necessitating  separation  before  grind¬ 
ing  and  an  extra  crushing  of  these  lumpy  portions.  Aside 
from  this,  the  process  from  now  on  is  identical  with  that  of 
the  dry  process  above  described.  The  clay  or  shale  used  in 
the  wet  process  is  crushed  and  dried  as  described  in  the  dry 
process. 

CONSIDERATION  OF  HAZARDS 

Raw  Stock,  dry  process. — Cement  rock,  limestone  and  clay 
are  each  inert. 

Raw  Stock,  wet  process . — Marl  and  clay  being  always 
moist  are  also  inert. 

Finished  Stock,  both  processes. — Having  been  subjected  to 
extremely  high  temperature  in  the  kilns  possesses  no  com¬ 
bustible  quality,  but  may  retain  sufficient  latent  heat  from 
milling  to  set  fire  to  wooden  receptacles ;  hence,  all  elevators, 
conveyor  boxes  and  storage  bins  should  be  of  non-combustible 
material.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  presence 
of  free  lime  in  the  finished  product,  all  woodwork  exposed 
to  same  loses  its  contained  moisture  and  becomes  as  readily 
inflammable  as  punk,  notwithstanding  the  fact  of  its  being 
coated  with  the  cement. 

Fuel,  both  processes. — Class  of  coal  being  high-steaming 
bituminous  it  is  liable  to  ignite  spontaneously  when  in  large 
piles  as  it  comes  to  the  plant,  hence,  it  should  be  piled  in  the 
open  and  be  frequently  tested  for  heating;  ground  or  pulver¬ 
ized  coal  being  peculiarly  susceptible  to  self-ignition  should 
never  be  housed  in  large  quantity  inside  of  any  structure, 
preferably,  it  should  be  prepared  in  only  such  quantity  as  will 
supply  the  needs  of  the  kilns,  to  the  hoppers  of  which  it 
should  be  transferred  from  the  mills  by  iron  conveyors  ;  the 
most  satisfactory  method  being  by  airblast  through  metal 
pipes  from  mills  to  a  dust  collector ;  and  thence  by  metal- 
cased  screw  conveyor  to  feed  hoppers  at  kilns ;  if  stored  in¬ 
side  of  buildings  the  bins  should  be  of  metal  and  of  small 
capacity.  Practically  all  of  the  coal  used  at  the  wet  process 
plants  in  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Michigan  is  that  from  the  Fair¬ 
mont  mines  in  West  Virginia,  possessing  the  “fiery”  char¬ 
acteristics  of  coal  from  that  district. 

PROCESS  HAZARDS 

Rock  Crushing,  dry  process. — This  constitutes  a  mild 
hazard  as  the  cement  rock  or  limestone  is  roughly  broken  up 
as  it  comes  from  the  quarry  by  passing  through  jawbreakers 
or  crushers  of  the  so-called  “coffee-mill”  type.  The  surround¬ 
ings  are  usually  rough  and  not  readily  combustible. 


8 


Drying,  rock  and/or  clay. — Both  classes  of  stock  are 
usually  dried  by  being  passed  through  slowly  rotating  iron 
cylinders  which  are  heated  by  coal  fuel,  the  flame  and  products 
of  combustion  passing  through  the  cylinders  in  contact  with 
the  material  and  escaping  at  the  upper  or  feed  end  of  same 
through  iron  or  brick  stacks;  these  dryers  are  usually  unen¬ 
closed,  but  as  flame  from  the  combustion  chamber  frequently 
is  permitted  to  escape  at  the  junction  of  the  dryer  and  the 
firebox,  the  device  should  be  kept  free  from  exposure  to  or 
contact  with  woodwork  or  other  combustible  material ;  where 
the  drying  device  is  enclosed  in  masonry,  the  walls  should  be 
free  from  cracks  and  iron  backstays  be  used  for  its  support 
and  be  freed  from  contact  or  exposure  to  woodwork  or  com¬ 
bustibles.  The  hot  stone  should  be  conveyed  through  iron 
transmissions  to  the  cooling  pit  or  bin,  before  going  to  the 
raw  stock  warehouses  for  storage. 

Drying  Coal  Fuel,  both  processes. — Coal  is  usually  crushed 
by  power  in  a  coffee-mill  device,  though  this  is  sometimes 
accomplished  in  an  iron  mill  usually  of  the  Williams  type; 
is  elevated  to  an  iron  hopper  over  the  dryer,  which  is  usually 
an  iron  cylinder  enclosed  in  brick  work  and  set  at  an  inclina¬ 
tion  to  the  horizon  from  feed  to  delivery  end,  and  heated  by 
direct  fires  under  the  rotating  cylinder  in  furnaces  within  its 
brick  enclosures.  The  precautions  noted  above  in  relation 
to  the  location  and  arrangement  of  the  raw  stock  dryers  should 
be  called  for  in  this  class.  The  dried  coal  passes  by  iron 
elevators  to  feed  hoppers  over  the  Griffin  or  other  pulverizing 
mills,  thence  is  conveyed  to  kiln  hoppers  or  storage  bins  by 
elevators  and  screw  conveyors,  or  as  above  indicated,  by  air- 
blast  through  metal  pipes  to  dust  collector ;  thence  to  kiln 
fuel  hoppers  by  screw  conveyors  encased  in  metal,  this  method 
of  handling  fuel  promising  the  greatest  measure  of  safety 
from  fire,  as  there  is  less  finely  pulverized  dust  held  in  sus¬ 
pense  in  the  atmosphere.  Coal  ground  in  Griffin,  tube  and 
other  partially  open  mills  gives  off  much  fine  dust  to  the 
atmosphere,  while  the  ball  mills  are  but  little  less  objection¬ 
able  in  that  respect.  I  am  advised  that  while  the  “Williams” 
mill  used  as  a  crusher  of  raw  coal  has  seldom  caused  trouble, 
several  fires  and  explosions  are  asscribed  to  its  use  for  pulver¬ 
izing  the  dried  coal,  an  item  well  worth  keeping  in  mind  on 
inspection. 

The  extreme  hazard  of  combining  the  fire-drying  and 
pulverization  of  coal  under  the  same  roof  does  not  appear  to 
have  very  strongly  appealed  to  the  average  manager  of  ce¬ 
ment  works,  and  yet  it  is  the  most  striking  and  menacing  of 
the  processes  incident  to  the  production  of  cement.  All  dry¬ 
ing  devices  should  be  separated  from  the  grinding  depart¬ 
ment  in  the  manipulation  of  coal  fuel,  and  that  this  method 
is  feasible  is  amply  demonstrated  by  the  practice  at  the  Atlas 


9 


Cement  Co.'s  works  at  Northampton,  Penn.,  where  drying 
of  stone,  clay  and  coal  is  carried  out  in  the  open,  under  or¬ 
dinary  shelter-roof  sheds  detached  from  other  buildings. 

Raw  Stock  Mills,  dry  process. — The  broken  raw  stock, 
cement  rock,  or  the  mixture  of  limestone  and  clay  is  usually 
conveyed  from  the  raw  stock  bins  to  the  hoppers  of  the  rough 
mills  by  belts,  and  is  reduced  to  a  coarse  meal  by  passage 
through  mills  of  various  makes,  from  which  the  material  may 
be  graded  on  screens  or  in  bolts,  and  then  passed  to  the  fin¬ 
ishing  mills,  usually  the  tube  mill  pattern,  the  resulting  out¬ 
put  being  very  finely  comminuted  and  the  ingredients  very 
intimately  mixed.  While  some  frictional  heat  is  generated 
in  these  mills  in  the  reduction  of  the  hard  stone,  it  does  not 
appear  sufficient  to  cause  ignition  of  combustibles  in  contact 
with  it,  but  the  fine  dust  from  the  limestone  has  the  quality 
of  absorbing  the  moisture  from  the  woodwork  upon  which 
it  settles,  as  noted  above  in  relation  to  the  finished  cement.  An 
exception  must  be  noted  in  respect  to  plants,  which,  while  con¬ 
tinuing  to  operate  by  the  wet  process,  have  substituted  lime¬ 
stone  in  place  of  marl  and  must  reduce  the  stone  to  extreme 
fineness  in  pulverizing  mills  run  at  such  high  speed  and 
pressure  as  to  heat  the  meal  to  a  degree  which  might  cause 
fire  in  contact  with  wooden  conveyors  or  receptacles.  In 
such  cases  elevator  legs,  conveyor  casings  and  hoppers  should 
always  be  of  iron. 

The  grinding  and  mixing  of  raw  stock  (marl  and  clay) 
in  the  wet  process  plants  carries  no  hazard  with  it,  the  mate¬ 
rials  being  mixed  and  ground  while  in  a  fluid  state  as  ex¬ 
plained  above. 

Burning  Kilns,  both  processes. — While  the  intense  heat 
(2,500-2,800  deg.  F.)  generated  in  these  devices  during  op¬ 
eration  as  well  as  that  which  is  emitted  by  the  hot  clinker  as 
it  falls  from  the  kiln,  appears  to  present  a  very  marked  hazard, 
it  is  in  fact  quite  a  negligible  item  of  the  process,  as  the  very 
intensity  of  the  heat  compels  fire  proof  construction  in  its 
vicinity,  as  well  as  liberal  space  on  all  sides  and  a  high  roof 
to  insure  ventilation ;  the  radiated  heat  however,  will  rapidly 
dry  out  any  woodwork  in  the  structure  and  render  it  more 
readily  ignitable  in  case  of  fire  from  any  cause.  At  one  plant 
the  wooden  hand-rails  to  the  stairways  and  galleries  which 
are  located  well  above  the  kilns,  was  found  to  be  uncom¬ 
fortably  hot  to  the  hand  and  it  can  well  be  conceived  that  a 
fire  once  started  would  spread  with  great  rapidity  under  such 
conditions ;  hence,  the  presence  of  much  woodwork  such  as 
platforms,  galleries  or  roof  boards  in  the  kiln  house  deserves 
careful  consideration  by  the  inspector.  Care  should  be  taken 
during  the  process  of  cooling  the  clinker  that  it  be  kept  free 
from  combustible  material,  and  that  it  be  not  stored  in  bins 
subject  to  ignition  until  it  has  become  cooled;  such  bins 
should  always  be  non-combustible. 


The  most  dangerous  hazard  of  the  kiln  room  is  found 
in  the  storage,  handling  and  method  of  burning  the  pulver¬ 
ized  bituminous  coal  fuel,  as  there  appears  to  be  the  possibility 
of  a  dust  explosion  due  to  the  delivery  of  an  excess  of  the 
fuel  from  the  feed  hoppers,  which  may  happen  in  the  most 
approved  system,  when  through  accident  or  from  carelessness 
the  air  blast  is  shut  off  before  the  delivery  of  fuel  through  the 
feeding  device  has  been  stopped;  hence,  any  system  which 
does  not  provide  for  the  shut  off  of  the  feed  before  the  air 
blast  ceases,  is  dangerously  defective,  fire  wise. 

In  the  best  practice,  usual  to  modern  plants,  the  coal  is 
delivered  to  the  tops  of  iron  feed  hoppers  by  screw  conveyors 
enclosed  in  metal  casing,  and  is  automatically  fed  from  the 
bottom  of  the  hopper  by  a  screw  conveyor  enclosed  in  an 
iron  pipe,  the  end  of  which  is  connected  to  the  air  blast  pipe 
leading  to  the  kiln  head ;  the  pulverized  coal  as  it  falls  from 
the  feeder  into  the  air  duct,  is  met  by  a  blast  of  hot  air  which 
forces  it  into  the  kiln  in  such  state  of  distribution  as  to  insure 
rapid  and  complete  combustion  with  intense  heat.  Separate 
hoppers  are  provided  for  each  kiln,  the  flow  of  fuel  and  the 
blast  of  air  being  controlled  at  each  hopper  by  geared  con¬ 
nection  to  the  fuel  feeding  screw,  and  by  a  cut-off  valve  in  a 
branch  pipe  from  the  general  air  blast.  Under  another  and 
approved  system,  the  power  for  operating  the  feeding  mech¬ 
anism  and  the  air  blast  is  secured  from  induction  motors 
attached  and  individual  to  each  hopper  and  air  blast. 

Where,  as  in  the  older  practice,  fuel  is  fed  from  the 
bottom  of  the  hopper  without  the  aid  of  a  screw  conveyor 
and  is  met  by  a  fan  blast  as  it  falls,  or  where  the  fuel  is 
forced  to  the  kilns  by  being  carried  through  the  vanes  of  the 
fan  with  the  air,  the  hazard  is  sufficiently  pronounced  to 
warrant  positive  declination  of  the  risk. 

Screw  Conveyors — Where  in  use  for  the  movement  of 
hard  and  dry  material,  whether  coal,  raw  stock,  clinker  or 
finished  cement,  should  invariably  be  enclosed  in  metal  casing, 
as  they  frequently  become  choked  and  the  frictional  heat  gen¬ 
erated  by  the  action  of  the  screw  on  the  material  banked  up 
in  its  convolutions  may  become  intense  enough  to  ignite  the 
encasement  if  it  be  of  wood. 

Electric  Motors — Many  of  the  plants  now  maintain  their 
own  electrical  generating  plants,  and  operate  machinery  and 
devices  by  individual  motors,  generally  and  preferably  of  the 
induction  type,  which  are  sparkless.  It  is  evident  that  none 
but  induction  motors  should  be  used  where  coal  is  ground  or 
otherwise  handled  by  power,  as  the  sparking  from  the  com¬ 
mutators  of  the  direct  current  motors  might  easily  ignite  the 
material  when  in  a  finely  comminuted  condition ;  hence,  when¬ 
ever  direct  current  motors  are  found  in  use  for  operation  of 
coal  drying  or  pulverizing  devices,  the  hazard  is  sufficiently 
marked  to  warrant  avoidance  of  the  risk. 


11 


Causes  of  Fires — As  a  result  of  diligent  inquiry  and  in¬ 
vestigation  as  to  the  known  causes  of  fires  in  plants  of  this 
class,  the  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  where  they  have 
originated  in  the  manufacturing  sections  and  have  not  been 
the  result  of  ordinary  conditions  incident  to  any  class  of  risk, 
they  have  generally  occurred  in  the  coal  preparation  depart¬ 
ment  ;  either  from  friction  in  the  grinding  mills,  due  to  the 
presence  of  foreign  matter  in  the  coal,  and  usually  resulting 
in  an  explosion  as  well  as  fire ;  or  by  ignition  of  coal  dust  in 
same  locality  from  furnace  fires  at  the  dryers,  and/or  from 
spontaneous  ignition  of  coal  in  piles,  both  ground  and  un¬ 
ground,  inside  and  outside  buildings. 

Fires  in  finished  stock  warehouses  mark  a  good  second 
to  those  of  the  coal  preparation  localities,  and  when  not  due 
to  normal  or  ordinary  causes,  it  is  my  opinion  that  they  arise 
from  the  clogging  or  choking  of  screw  conveyors  encased  in 
wood,  and  as  such  casing  is  deprived  of  its  contained  moisture 
by  the  action  of  free  lime  in  the  cement  which  envelops  it, 
it  is  in  prime  condition  for  ready  ignition  at  a  comparatively 
low  temperature.  A  large  majority  of  the  finished  stock 
warehouses  inspected,  developed  the  fact  that  roof  boards 
were  laid  on  wooden  trusses  supported  by  wooden  beams  and 
posts,  while  the  open  top  cement  bins  were  also  enclosed  in 
wood,  with  wood  encased  screw  conveyors  overhead  or  under 
floor  level,  or  both. 

In  addition  to  the  above  notes  on  the  hazards  of  processes 
particular  attention  is  called  to  the  following  suggestions 
covering  marked  features  of  process  hazard  or  of  construc¬ 
tion,  which  render  a  risk  entirely  objectionable  and  to  be 
avoided,  and  in  addition,  to  instances  where  the  conditions  are 
such  as  to  warrant  particular  caution  in  taking  chances  on 
the  outfit : 

Decline  all  classes  of  cement  works  where  the  drying  and 
preparation  of  coal  fuel  is  carried  on  inside  the  main  plant, 
or  in  adjoining  structures  not  safely  cut  off. 

Decline  all  classes  of  cement  works  where  the  kiln  house 
is  wood,  or  in  which  wood  largely  predominates  in  the 
structure. 

Decline  all  cement  works  where  wooden  elevator  legs, 
conveyor  casings  or  storage  bins  are  used  in  handling  hot 
material. 

Decline,  as  a  rule,  all  classes  of  cement  works  where  the 
daily  output  is  less  than  500  barrels. 

Decline  all  kiln  houses  where  pulverized  coal  fuel  hoppers 
are  not  provided  with  screw  conveyor  feed  control,  or  where 
fuel  is  directly  fed  to  the  kilns  through  the  blowing  device. 

Decline  all  fuel  preparation  plants  when  both  drying  and 
grinding  coal  is  carried  on  under  the  same  roof ;  when  ground 
coal  is  stored  in  bulk  in  the  mill  room ;  when  the  machinery 
is  operated  by  direct  current  electric  motors  inside  the 
structure. 


12 


Scrutinise  carefully  all  plants  which  have  been  converted 
from  old  style  intermittent  furnace  to  rotary  kiln  process,  or 
from  marl  to  limestone  raw  stock,  wet  or  dry  process,  as  in 
each  case  much  “junk”  is  to  be  found  and  the  construction 
is  usually  faulty. 

Scrutinise  carefully  all  kiln  or  other  buildings  where 
heat  is  generated,  where  roofs  with  wooden  sheathing  or  sup¬ 
ports  are  low,  and  where  much  woodwork  appears,  as  in  gal¬ 
leries,  platforms  or  machine  encasements. 

Scrutinise  carefully  finished  stock  warehouses  where  bins 
are  of  wood  and  screw  conveyors  are  wood  encased ;  in  such 
cases  the  conditions  aggravate  the  hazard  seriously. 

In  addition  to  the  above  specific  cautions,  attention  is 
called  to  other  and  inherent  hazards,  as  noted  in  description 
of  processes,  all  of  which  are  worthy  of  careful  considera¬ 
tion  on  inspection ;  there  are  also  to  be  found  other  hazards 
not  incident  to  the  processes  such  as  carpenter  shops,  machine 
shops,  electric  light  plants,  and  perhaps  a  cooper  shop,  proper 
inspection  of  which  should  not  be  overlooked. 

In  a  broader  sense,  it  is  desired  to  caution  against  ac¬ 
ceptance  of  risks  of  the  class  under  consideration  which  are 
built  as  the  result  of  townsite  “booms,”  or  where  the  per¬ 
manence  of  the  venture  is  dependent  upon  uncertainty  as  to 
fuel  supply,  this  caution  being  intended  to  apply  especially 
to  such  plants  as  are  dependent  upon  natural  gas  or  fuel  oil 
as  a  means  of  producing  the  heat  necessary  to  the  making 
of  cement. 

The  past  history  of  natural  gas  and  the  present  monopoly 
of  fuel  oil  each  serve  to  prompt  extra  conservatism  in  accept¬ 
ance  of  risks  where  either  of  these  fuels  are  the  sole  source 
of  heat  supply. 

WET  VERSUS  DRY  PROCESS 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Portland  cement  when  made 
from  cement  rock  or  from  limestone  and  clay  of  suitable 
quality  is  credited  by  experts  as  being  much  superior  in  every 
essential  respect  to  that  produced  from  marl  and  clay,  and 
therefore  controls  the  market,  it  would  seem  that  in  competi¬ 
tion  the  marl  plants  will  have  to  be  content  with  lower  prices 
and  curtailed  profits  to  hold  their  own  against  the  dry  process 
plants,  and  when  to  this  trade  handicap  we  add  the  fact  of  the 
practically  limited  area  of  workable  marl  deposits  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  widespread  and  unlimited  supply  of  limestone 
and  clay  of  suitable  composition  for  the  production  of  Port¬ 
land  cement,  the  conditions  appear  to  warrant  much  care  in 
the  selection  of  marl  plants  as  subjects  of  insurance,  and  in 
suoport  of  this  conclusion,  the  following  remarks  are  sub¬ 
mitted  : 

Deposits  of  marl,  like  those  of  petroleum  and  natural 
gas,  are  found  only  in  restricted  territory,  and  in  each  case, 
when  the  deposit  has  once  been  exhausted,  there  is  no  natural 


13 


replacement  of  the  material  extracted.  The  marl  deposits 
cannot  be  profitably  worked  if  lying  under  more  than  fifteen 
feet  of  water,  or  more  than  four  feet  of  muck  or  peat  bog; 
when  the  marl  deposit  is  over  twenty  feet  in  thickness  the 
lower  portions  are  usually  so  contaminated  with  other  mat¬ 
ter  as  to  render  them  useless  as  the  basis  for  cement ;  hence, 
in  working  a  marl  bed  it  is  apparent  that  the  limit  of  profit¬ 
able  operation  is  confined  within  restricted  areas,  few  if  any 
of  which  give  promise  of  extended  availability. 

It  requires  one-half  of  a  cubic  yard  of  marl  as  it  comes 
from  the  deposit  to  produce  one  barrel  of  cement,  hence, 
given  a  mill  with  capacity  for  say  500  barrels  a  day,  it  would 
need  a  surface  area  of  one  acre  over  a  deposit  of  marl  18  feet 
thick  for  three  months  operation,  or  four  acres  per  year  of 
operation,  and  as  a  plant  of  500  barrels  per  day  capacity 
would  involve  an  initial  cost  of  at  least  $350,000,  for  plant 
and  equipment  alone,  it  is  evident  that  a  long  term  of  years 
of  successful  operation  would  have  to  be  assured  to  warrant 
so  large  an  investment  of  capital,  even  if  such  an  unusual 
deposit  of  marl  as  18  feet  should  prove  all  workable  during 
a  period  of  thirty  years,  and  both  of  these  propositions  are 
doubtful,  as  the  average  workable  deposit  of  marl  seldom 
exceeds  a  thickness  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  where  the  depth  of 
water  is  less  than  fifteen  feet,  or  that  of  the  muck  less  than 
four  feet,  which,  as  stated  above,  are  the  extremes  of  the 
obstacles  which  may  profitably  be  overcome  in  marl  recovery. 

Inspections  developed  the  fact  that  several  marl  plants 
had  exhausted  the  immediate  deposit,  necessitating  “going  far 
afield”  for  a  new  supply  at  the  expense  of  building  a  railroad 
for  transportation,  or,  as  in  one  instance,  the  substitution  of 
limestone  for  marl,  and  working  it  wet,  rather  than  incur  the 
expense  incident  to  discarding  the  old  equipment  and  replacing 
it  by  new  for  the  dry  process  system.  Under  these  adverse 
conditions  the  day  of  the  passing  of  the  wet  process  with 
marl  and  clay  as  raw  stock,  seems  to  be  plainly  marked,  and 
its  gradual  replacement  by  the  dry  process  system  using  lime¬ 
stone  and  clay  is  as  plainly  assured. 

In  support  of  the  above  conclusions,  the  following  ex¬ 
tract  from  the  advance  publication  of  the  report  of  The  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  covering  “The  Cement  Industry 
of  the  United  States  in  1906”  will  prove  of  interest : 

“From  what  is  known  of  the  present  condition  of  marl 
and  slag  plants,  and  of  plans  for  future  changes  and  new 
construction,  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  within  four  years 
more  Portland  cement  will  be  made  from  slag  than  from 
marl.  It  must  be  recognized  that  marl  plants  operate  under 
serious  natural  disadvantages,  that  these  disadvantages  are 
masked  by  general  high  prices  during  such  prosperous 
seasons  as  we  have  recently  experienced,  but  that  they  become 
painfully  apparent  during  years  of  general  depression.  When 
cement  sells  at  85  cents  or  less  per  barrel  at  mills  in  the 


Middle  West,  as  it  may  very  well  do  in  1908  or  1909,  it  will 
be  an  even  more  serious  matter  to  have  water  in  the  raw 
mixture  than  to  have  it  in  the  stock.”  (E.  C.  Eckel). 


IN  CONCLUSION 


To  insure  success  commercially  a  cement  plant  should 
possess  the  following  points  of  advantage  in  its  favor: 

An  extensive,  readily  handled  deposit  of  raw  material 
of  purest  character. 

An  outfit  of  the  strongest  and  best  designed  machinery. 

An  output  of  large  capacity. 

Cheap  power,  either  by  water  or  by  coal  mined  at  or  near 
site  of  plant. 

Location  such  as  to  insure  ample  means  of  transporta¬ 
tion  for  product. 

Skilled  operation  and  close  adherence  to  accepted  stand¬ 
ard  in  composition  of  the  finished  product. 

The  nearer  any  plant  combines  the  above  conditions  in 
its  makeup,  the  more  certainly  will  its  profits  be  assured. 


New  York,  October,  1907. 


J 


15 


(Confidential) 


J 


Gypsum  Plaster  Mills 


Cement  plaster  is  variously  known  as  “Stucco,”  wall- 
plaster,  plaster  of  Paris,  the  latter  term  being  the  proper 
one,  as  it  represents  the  material  base  of  the  others,  it  being 
the  product  of  crushed  and  calcined  or  “cooked”  gypsum. 

Specifically  and  properly,  “Stucco”  is  a  mixture  of  plaster 
of  Paris  and  glue,  while  wall  plaster  is  a  mixture  of  plaster  of 
Paris  with  sand,  wood  or  animal  fibre',  and/or  other  material. 

Gypsum,  from  which  plaster  of  Paris  is  made,  is  one  of 
the  softest  of  minerals ;  it  is  chemically  classed  as  a  calcium 
sulphate  in  combination  with  water.  It  is  found  in  work¬ 
able  deposits  throughout  the  United  States,  both  as  a  crystal¬ 
line  rock  and  as  a  granular  mixture  of  earth  and  gypsum, 
the  latter  being  known  as  “secondary  gypsum,”  also  “gypsite” 
and  as  earthy  gypsum,  Both  rock  and  secondary  gypsum 
may  occur  in  the  same  locality,  but  the  earthy  gypsum  is  gen¬ 
erally  confined  to  districts  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  while 
the  rock  variety  is. widely  distributed  throughout  the  country, 
the  most  remarkable  deposits  of  both  rock  and  secondary 
gypsum  being  found  in  the  almost  unbroken  formation  extend¬ 
ing  in  a  southwesterly  direction  from  Blue  Ridge,  Kansas  to 
Quanah,  Texas. 

Gypsum  is  crystalline  in  structure,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  2.32  in  its  raw  state  and  of  1.81  when  calcined.  It  is 
secured  as  rock  from  workings  in  open  quarries,  by  drifting 
or  tunneling  into  the  deposits,  or  by  shaft  mining,  and  is 
usually  thrown  from  placement  by  the  use  of  dynamite. 

Secondary  gypsum  or  “gypsite”  is  found  and  worked 
principally  in  the  States  of  Kansas,  Texas  and  Wyoming,  as 
well  as  in  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territories.  It  is  an  earth  of 
granular  formation,  usually  deposited  in  swampy  ground.  It 
is  soft  and  easily  recovered  by  digging  by  hand  or  machine, 
and  when  mined,  needs  no  preparation  to  fit  it  for  calcination, 
hence,  where  it  abounds,  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  more 
economically  produced  from  it  than  from  the  rock  gypsum, 
but  as  an  oTset  to  this  economical  feature,  it  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  deposits  of  “gypsite,”  like  those  of  marl  (referred 
to  in  my  report  on  Portland  cement)  are  variable  in  volume 


17 


and  not  always  of  sufficient  area  and  depth  to  warrant 
exploitation,  hence,  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  reliable 
information  as  to  the  extent  of  the  deposit  before  acceptance 
of  lines  on  plants  using  “gypsite”  as  sole  source  of  gypsum 
supply  in  plaster  manufacture. 

The  uses  to  which  gypsum  may  be  put  are  various,  the 
raw  rock  when  simply  pulverized  is  known  as  “land  plaster,” 
and  it  is  used  as  a  fertilizer ;  also,  under  the  term  “terra 
alba”  as  an  adulterant  for  wheat  flour  and  in  mixtures  or 
compounds,  as  a  base  for  insecticides,  and  as  a  retardent  in 
Portland  cement,  but  the  principal  use  of  the  raw  gypsum 
is  for  the  manufacture  of  chalk  crayons  and  like  products. 

Calcined  gypsum  is  known  as  plaster  of  Paris,  the  finer 
grades  being  known  as  dental  plaster  when  it  has  been  care¬ 
fully  reground  and  freed  from  gritty  particles,  and  a  similar 
grade  is  much  used  for  bedding  plate  glass  on  the  polishing 
tables  of  glass  works. 

Wall  plasters  under  various  trade  names  are  made  from 
plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  a  retarder,  or  by  a  mixture  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  a  retarder  and  sand ;  and  also  by  the  admix¬ 
ture  of  animal  or  vegetable  fibre  with  the  plaster  of  Paris. 

The  gypsum  industry  is  well  established  and  is  rapidly 
growing*  in  many  of  the  States  and  its  production  appears  to 
be  practically  under  the  control  of  a  few  organizations,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  United  States  Gypsum  Co.,  the 
American  Cement  Plaster  Co.,  and  the  Acme  Cement  Plaster 
Co.  In  1903  the  United  States  Gypsum  Co.  controlled  eighteen 
plaster  mills,  thirteen  mixing  mills  and  three  chemical  plants, 
this  corporation  being  capitalized  at  $7,500,000.  In  addition 
to  these  larger  corporations  there  are  many  smaller  ones  and 
numerous  individual  plants  of  relatively  small  capacity. 

PROCESSES. 

The  essential  conditions  necessary  to  the  production  of 
plaster  of  Paris  or  stucco  are  to  reduce  gypsum  to  the  finest 
possible  powder  or  “flour”  before  passing  it  to  the  cookers  or 
calcining  kettles,  and  then  to  apply  only  such  degree  of  heat 
as  will  serve  to  carry  off  such  proportion  of  its  contained 
moistures  as  will  prevent  the  voluntary  “setting”  or  harden¬ 
ing  of  the  finished  material  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
Hence,  where  the  rock  gypsum  is  used  it  is  put  through  many 
processes  of  breaking  and  grinding  to  reduce  it  to  proper 
degree  of  fineness  for  cooking,  while  in  the  use  of  “gypsite” 
or  earthy  gypsum,  its  natural  condition  of  granulation  per¬ 
mits  it  to  go  at  once  to  the  calcining  kettles  without  pre¬ 
liminary  treatment,  thus  insuring  larger  economy  in  handling 
than  is  the  case  with  the  rock. 

The  rock  gypsum  after  being  thrown  down  by  blasting 
with  dynamite  at  the  mine  or  quarry  is  conveyed  by  tramway, 
usually,  or  an  inclined  trestle,  to  the  mill,  where,  in  most 
instances,  the  broken  rock  is  passed  through  a  brick  encased 


18 


) 


iron  cylinder  dryer,  with  direct  fire  heat,  or  may  first  be 
passed  through  a  “jaw-breaker”  and  then  to  the  dryer,  or  to 
the  breaker  without  being  dried.  The  rock,  as  it  leaves  the 
breaker  is  reduced  to  pieces  the  size  of  a  man’s  hand  and 
then  dropped  to  the  hopper  of  a  second  crusher  or  “cracker” 
of  the  coffee-mill  type,  from  which  it  issues  as  a  gravel,  in 
which  state  it  is  elevated  to  feed  bins  over  the  grinding  mills. 

The  broken  rock  flows  by  gravity  from  the  bins  to 
ordinary  buhr  mills  (many  of  them  being  second-hand  devices 
from  old-style  flour  mills),  where  it  is  reduced  to  a  flour-like 
fineness,  and  is  then  elevated  to  a  bin  over  a  second  set  of 
mills,  usually  of  the  vertical  type,  with  emery-faced  millstone, 
in  which  it  is  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder ;  these'  mills 
running  at  high  speed,  heat  the  material  to  a  degree  warrant¬ 
ing  the  use  of  metal  elevators  or  conveyors  and  storage  bins. 

From  these  finishing  mills,  the  flour  is  usually  transferred 
by  conveyors  and  elevators  to  the  bolts  or  screens,  from  which 
the  “tailings”  return  to  the'  mills  for  re-grinding,  and  the 
screened  flour  falls  by  gravity  to  storage  bins  over  the 
cookers  or  calcining  kettles.  In  some  instances,  however, 
the  flour  is  carried  from  the  mills  as  above  described,  to  the 
bins  over  the  cookers  and  from  the  latter  passes  to  the  bolts 
or  screens  after  cooling. 

The  cookers  or  calcining  kettles  are  iron  or  steel  cylinders 
of  one  inch  in  thickness,  8  to  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
same  in  height ;  they  are  set  on  brick  foundations  over  a  fur¬ 
nace  and  enclosed  in  brickwork  from  12  to  18  inches  in  thick¬ 
ness,  the  inner  wall  being  fire-brick,  an  annular  space  being 
left  between  the  brickwork  and  the  shell  of  the  cooker  for 
the  circulation  of  heat  from  the  furnace.  The'  flour  from 
the  storage  bins  above  mentioned,  is  fed  by  gravity  to  the 
cookers  (which  of  the  size  mentioned,  have  capacity  for 
calcining  about  3 tons  of  ground  gypsum  per  hour),  where 
it  is  subjected  to  a  heat  of  230  deg.  F.  at  which  temperature  it 
boils  vigorously,  giving  off  water  vapor,  which  rises  through 
the  venting  stack  to  the  outer  air. 

The  flour  is  stirred  or  agitated  during*  the  period  of  cook¬ 
ing,  by  a  rotating  arm  having  pendant  lugs  or  arms  which 
keep  the  flour  in  constant  motion.  When  the  temperature 
of  the  flour  reaches  270  deg.  F.  the  mass  settles  down  almost 
solid  and  ceases  to  evolve  steam,  and  when  the  temperature 
rises  to  280  to  290  deg.  F.,  violent  ebullition  sets  in,  the  boil¬ 
ing  flour  often  being  thrown  over  the  top  of  the  kettle;  when 
the  temperature  reaches  350-370  deg.  F.  the  mass  is  ready  for 
withdrawal  through  gates  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  into  a 
cooling  pit  or  bin,  constructed  of  fire-brick  or  cement,  where 
it  is  supposed  to  remain  until  sufficiently  cooled  for  transfer 
by  conveyor  to  finished  stock  bins  as  plaster  of  Paris. 

From  these  bins  the  material  is  conveyed  to  various  other 
bins,  if  as  plaster  of  Paris,  to  the  warehouses  where  it  is 
bagged  or  barrelled;  if  as  wall  plaster  or  retarded  plaster. 


19 


to  the  mixing  device,  thence  bagged  or  barrelled  or  stored. 
It  may  be  noted  here  that  if  the  gypsum  is  to  be  converted 
into  land  plaster,  it  goes  from  the  mills  to  warehouse  without 
being  cooked  or  calcined. 

Rctardcnts  are  used  to  delay  the  “setting”  of  the  plaster 
in  the  proportion  of  about  six  pounds  to  the  ton,  being  added 
at  the  mixer,  the  material  presenting  no  hazard. 

Wall  plaster  is  prepared  by  adding  animal  (hair)  or  veg¬ 
etable  (wood)  fibre  to  the  plaster  of  Paris  at  the  mixing 
machine,  the  operation  creating  no  notable  hazard,  but  the 
storage  of  the  fibre  inside  of  the  mill  structure  should  be 
restricted  to  a  day’s  supply  at  most. 

Hard  wall  plaster  is  produced  by  adding  to  the  plaster 
of  Paris  various  materials  such  as  sand,  marl,  fire-clay,  etc., 
in  addition  to  a  retarder,  the  mixing  being  without  notable 
hazard. 

Alabastine;  anti-kalsomine,  Lieno ;  cold-water  paint  and 
like  wall  finishing  or  surfacing  material  is  produced  from  the 
finer  grades  of  gypsum,  which  after  having  passed  through 
the  processes  above  described,  is  reground  and  repeatedly 
bolted  or  screened  to  reduce1  it  to  an  extremely  fine  powder ; 
it  is  then  mixed  with  powdered  dry  metallic  colors  and  glue, 
which  has  been  ground  to  powder  in  a  dry  state,  the  mixture 
?being  finished  by  cooking  in  steam  heated  open  top  revolving 
-’metal  pans,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  to  cooling  bins  and 
from  thence  to  the  packing  room,  where  it  is  usually  put  up 
in  five-pound  paper  packages  and  shipped  in  barrels  or  crates 
<of  wood. 


HAZARDS 

Rock  Dryers  present  the  hazard  usual  to  heat  producing 
device's,  and  should  be  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  wood¬ 
work  or  other  combustibles ;  the  enclosing  brick  wall  should 
be  free  from  cracks  and  be  supported  by  iron  back  stays ; 
smokestacks  should  have  proper  clearance  at  roof  passage. 
As  a  preference,  dryers  should  be  located  apart  from  the 
main  buildings. 

Rock  Crushers  and  crackers  present  no  points  of  hazard 
requiring  particular  note. 

Buhr  Mills  present  only  a  mild  hazard  in  operation,  but 
the  stones  may  be  set  so  close  or  be  speeded  so  high  as  to 
heat  the  product  to  an  appreciable  degree,  hence  all  con¬ 
veyors,  elevators,  casings  and  storage  bins  for  the  flour,  should 
be  of  metal. 

Emery  Mills;  the  grinding  faces  of  this  class  of  mill  are 
made  of  a  very  hard  emery  rock  and  operate  in  a  vertical 
position  at  high  speed,  which  tends  to  so  materially  heat  the 
product  as  to  emphasize  the  necessity  for  iron  casings  to  con¬ 
veyors  and  elevators,  and  fireproof  storage  bins  for  the  flour 
produced. 


Sand  Dryers  are  usually  heated  by  direct  coal  fires,  and 
are  not  infrequently  of  improvised  or  makeshift  character, 
but  in  any  case  proper  protection  against  exposed  woodwork 
or  other  combustibles  should  be  insisted  upon.  From  the 
fact  that  sand  from  the  dryer  retains  its  heat  for  a  long  time 
after  removal  from  the  device,  it  should  always  be  stowed  in 
metal  or  other  non-combustible  receptacles,  and  in  transit  to 
such  deposit  should  pass  only  through  iron  cased  conveyors 
or  elevators. 

Sand  Grinding  Mills  present  hazards  similar  to  those 
noted  regarding  Emery  mills,  and  the  same  precautions  there 
noted  apply  here. 

Bolts  and  Screens  are  slow  motioned  devices  and  present 
practically  no  hazard  in  operation,  though  fires  have  been 
known  to  occur  in  them  when  incased  in  wood  and  the  flour 
from  the  cooker  comes  to  them  before  having  been  properly 
cooled. 

Cooker  or  calcining  kettles ;  this  device  is  a  heat  producer 
of  note,  hence  the  nature  of  its  construction  and  environment 
should  be  such  as  to  avoid  possible  over-heating  or  ignition 
of  exposed  woodwork,  precautions  such  as  noted  relative  to 
rock  dryers  being  in  order.  A  superior  method  of  construc¬ 
tion  for  this  class  of  device  was  seen,  where  the  ordinary 
18-inch  brick  wall  surrounding  the  kettle  was  re-inforced  by 
a  boiler  iron  shell,  set  at  a  distance  of  6  or  8  inches  from 
the  brickwork  and  the  intervening  annular  space  filled  with 
wet  plaster  of  Paris ;  all  woodwork  near  these  kettles  being 
cut  away  8  to  10  inches,  with  their  exposed  surfaces  covered 
with  plaster  board,  each  kettle  having  a  brick,  cement-lined 
cooling  pit  attached,  an  exceptionally  good  and  satisfactory 
arrangement. 

Cooling  pit  to  cooker  should  not  only  be  of  fireoroof 
construction,  but  should  also  expose  no  woodwork,  while  the 
casing  of  conveyors  and  elevators  handling  the  flour  should 
be  of  iron  leading  to  a  fireproof  storage  bin,  as  many  fires 
have  originated  from  carelessly  transferring  hot  flour  through 
wooden  devices  to  wooden  storage  bins,  this  being  the  prin¬ 
cipal  cause  of  fires  in  the  class. 

Plaster  Mixers  present  only  a  mild  hazard  in  operation, 
negligible. 

Fibre  Machines  operating  on  wood  are  similar  in  hazard 
to  excelsior  machines,  the  material  being  produced  by  means 
of  toothed  saws  set  spirally  on  a  horizontal  cylinder  operated 
by  power,  a  log  of  wood  first  denuded  of  its  bark,  being  held 
against  the  saws  until  it  is  reduced  to  shreds.  These  machines 
should  not  be  located  inside  of  the  main  plant,  and  the 
shredded  material  kept  inside  the  plant  should  be  limited 
to  one  day’s  supply,  as  it  rapidly  dries  out  and  is  inflammable. 


21 


Fibre  Machines  working  on  animal  hair  are  devices 
similar  to  the  “lumper”  used  in  mixed  mills  for  opening 
lumpy  stock ;  they  are  however,  smaller,  and  are  usually 
operated  by  hand,  though  sometimes  by  power ;  they  create 
much  combustible  dust  in  operation,  and  the  opened,  broken 
fibre  is  usually  delivered  on  the  floor,  or  into  an  open  wooden 
box  at  the  device.  Should  be  located  in  separate  enclosure, 
or  preferably,  outside  of  main  structures,  and  the  material  be 
limited  to  one  day’s  supply  at  the  mixer. 

Retarders  when  used  as  a  commercial  product,  made 
outside  of  the  premises,  present  a  negligible  hazard.  As  most 
of  the  retarders  are  patented  compounds  of  secret  ingredients, 
it  will  seldom  be  found  that  they  are  manufactured  at  the 
plaster  mills,  hence  discussion  of  the  process  will  be  omitted. 

Alabastine,  Anti-kalsomine,  etc.,  is  but  a  refinement  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  as  noted  above,  leaving  out  the  hazard  of 
the  cooking  kettles,  the  substitution  of  which  by  the  steam 
pan  cookers  presenting  a  mild  hazard. 

CONCLUSION 

Taken  as  a  class,  the  average  plaster  mill  is  not  attractive 
in  appearance,  nor  entirely  satisfactory  as  to  construction, 
in  both  of  which  respects  there  is  much  room  for  profitable 
improvement.  The  business  is  rapidly  growing  in  importance 
and  it  may  be  expected  that  the  number  of  plants  will  in¬ 
crease  in  proportion  to  the  demand  for  the  material,  thus 
providing  a  sufficiently  large  aggregation  of  risks  to  promise 
an  average  of  experience  in  the  class,  the  general  hazard  of 
which  places  such  plants  on  same  level  as  natural  (Rosendale) 
cement  works  and  modern  lime  kiln  works. 

Yours  very  truly, 


General  Inspector 


4 


22 


The  Chlorates 


PRINTED  BY 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 

NEW  YORK 


[psq] 


COURTESY  OF 

THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


The  Chlorates 


$ 


Interpreting  the  provisions  of  a  recently  enacted  law 
covering  the  matter  of  “Regulating  the  Manufacturing,  Dis¬ 
tribution,  Storage,  Use,  or  Possession  of  Explosives  and 
Their  Ingredients,”  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  clas¬ 
sifies  as  an  “explosive  ingredient” 

“Any  chemical  compound  or  mechanical  mixture 
that  contains  any  oxidizing  or  combustible  units  or  their 
ingredients,  in  such  proportions,  quantities  or  packing 
that  the  ignition  by  fire,  friction,  or  by  concussion,  by 
percussion,  or  by  detonation  of,  or  any  part  of  the  com¬ 
pound  or  mixture  may  cause  such  a  sudden  generation 
of  highly  heated  gases  that  the  resultant  gaseous  pres¬ 
sures  are  capable  of  producing  destructive  effects  on 
contiguous  objects,  or  the  destroying  of  life  or  limb,” 

and  specifically  nominates  as  coming  under  this  category  the 
chlorates  of  barium,  potassium,  sodium  and  strontium,  each 
of  which  is  liable  to  ignition  and  explosion  under  any  of  the 
conditions  mentioned,  and  as  an  additional  precaution,  the 
law  (Sec.  5)  provides,  “no  person  shall  have  in  his  posses¬ 
sion,  or  purchase,  accept,  receive,  sell,  give,  barter  or  other¬ 
wise  dispose  of  or  procure  explosives  or  ingredients,  except 
as  provided  in  this  act.” 

Attention  is  called  to  the  enactment  of  this  stringent  and 
restrictive  law  in  order  to  awaken  a  wider  and  more  appre¬ 
ciative  interest  in  guarding  against  the  hazards  brought  about 
by  the  present  necessity  for  the  production  of  high  explosives 
to  meet  the  ever  increasing  need  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
present  world-wide  war,  which  has  compelled  a  vast  increase 
in  the  production  of  their  basic  ingredients,  notably  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  chlorates  and  nitrates,  with  the  result  that  these  basic 
compounds  are  being  accumulated  and  stored  in  very  large 
quantities  at  various  points  throughout  the  country,  in  many 
instances  without  discrimination  as  to  locality  or  considera¬ 
tion  as  to  the  possible  jeopardy  to  life  or  property  by  fire 
and/or  explosion  which  must  exist  where  such  dangerous 
compounds  are  stored  and  handled. 

Past  experience  has  frequently  demonstrated  the  well 
known  and  dangerous  instability  of  these  compounds  and 
their  liability  to  bring  about  disaster  under  seemingly  slight 
provocation,  and  recent  fires  and  explosions  due  to  their 
presence  and  handling  serve  to  strongly  emphasize  the  neces¬ 
sity  for  increased  caution  by  those  responsible  for  the  storage 
and  distribution  of  these  materials. 


1 


While  the  hazards  incident  to  the  manufacture  of  chlo¬ 
rates  may  be  considered  as  comparatively  mild,  this  condition 
does  not  prevail  in  the  matter  of  the  finished  product.  All 
chlorates  carry  large  percentages  of  loosely  combined  oxygen 
content,  and  while  it  is  generally  assumed  that  pure  chlorates 
are  not  inherently  of  an  explosive  nature,  they  are  known  to 
become  so  when  in  contact  with  organic  matter  and  other 
substances;  when  subjected  to  the  influence  of  friction,  shock 
(as  in  crushing  the  hard  lumps),  concussion  and  percussion, 
and  when  heated  to  about  400°  C.  (752°  F.)  through  the 
liberation  of  oxygen,  which  sometimes  occurs  in  a  violently 
explosive  manner. 

Even,  if  by  chance,  explosion  does  not  ensue  from  the 
ignition  of  the  chlorate,  the  oxygen  liberated  serves  to  pro¬ 
mote  rapid  combustion  of  contiguous  organic  matter  and/or 
volatiles. 

Chlorates  are  usually  received  from  the  factory  packed 
in  small  hard-wood  kegs,  iron  hooped  and  paper  lined,  and 
of  a  capacity  of  about  100  pounds  each ;  observation  as  to 
methods  of  handling  and  storage  evidences  the  fact  that  the 
weight  of  the  package  and  the  assumed  rigidity  of  its  con¬ 
struction  serves  to  induce  carelessness  in  handling,  with  the 
average  result  that  the  shock  and  jar  due  to  rough  usage 
develops  defects  in  the  package  through  which  more  or  less 
of  the  material  escapes  and  is  scattered  over  the  floor,  thus 
presenting  ideal  conditions  for  ignition  from  its  being  mixed 
with  dust  from  abraded  floors,  friction  due  to  contact  with 
workmen’s  shoes,  or  a  shock  due  to  the  forceful  deposit  of 
the  iron  rimmed  package  into  this  mixture  of  wood  dust  and 
chlorate  crystals  serving  perfectly  to  complete  the  mechanical 
combination  productive  of  combustion. 

In  support  of  the  statement  that  rough  handling  of 
chlorate  packages  is  liable  to  cause  ignition  of  the  material, 
attention  is  called  to  the  record  of  a  fire  and  explosion  which 
occurred  at  the  Silver  Spring  Bleachery  &  Dye  Works, 
Providence,  R.  I.,  February  19,  1896,  where  it  is  stated  the 
explosion  preceded  the  fire,  being  caused  by  friction  set  up 
through  rolling  or  sliding  the  iron  bound  kegs  of  chlorate 
over  loose  crystals  lying  on  the  floor  and  in  contact  with 
accumulated  dust  particles ;  fire  ensued  and  remaining  kegs 
of  chlorate  are  said  to  have  successively  exploded. 

The  recent  fire  and  explosion  in  the  Jarvis  warehouse  in  ^ 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  was  ascribed  to  the  careless  throwing  of  v 

a  lighted  cigarette  on  crystals  of  chlorate  scattered  over  the 
floor,  and  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  glowing  end  of  the 
cigarette  ignited  the  chlorate ;  while  this  conclusion  mav 
serve  in  lieu  of  a  better  one,  it  is  most  probable  that  in 
attempting  to  extinguish  the  cigarette  with  pressure  from  his 
foot,  the  workman  set  up  just  that  amount  of  force  and  fric¬ 
tion  necessary  to  induce  ignition  through  this  mechanical 


2 


mixture  of  dust  and  chlorate  crystals,  and  that  continued 
effort  to  rub  out  the  fire  simply  served  to  aggravate  the  con¬ 
ditions. 

In  support  of  the  above  explanation  of  the  probable 
cause  of  the  Jarvis  warehouse  fire  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  it  is 
interesting  to  cite  a  fire  of  almost  identical  conditions,  which 
is  recorded  as  having  occurred  in  the  storehouse  of  Thomp¬ 
son,  Son  &  Williams,  Hulme,  Manchester,  England,  in  1908, 
and  reported  in  the  Chemist  and  Druggist,  of  London,  wherein 
it  was  stated : 

“It  appears  that  the  warehouse  contained  many  tons 

of  chlorate  of  sodium,  chlorate  of  potassium  and  chlorate 

of  barium,  stored  in  barrels  lined  with  paper/’ 

Major  Cooper-Key,  Chief  Inspector  of  Explosives,  who 
made  an  investigation  of  the  disaster,  reported  that  “a  lab¬ 
orer,  in  reaching  a  winch  handle,  jumped  from  a  barrel  and  ^ 
struck  a  spark  with  his  boot,  and  then  saw  a  flame.  Rubbing  0 
the  place  with  his  foot  only  made  the  flame  worse,  and  soon 
afterward  three  explosions  occurred.”  The  Chief  Inspector 
says  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  fire  was  undoubtedly  started 
or  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  laborer’s  boot  on  a  mixture 
of  chlorate  of  sodium  or  potassium  and  organic  dust  on  the 
floor  of  the  warehouse,  the  presence  of  this  mixture  being- 
proved  beyond  question  by  the  rapid  spread  of  the  flame 
when  rubbed  with  the  foot. 

In  view  of  this  conclusion,  the  Chief  Inspector  suggested 
that  handlers  of  chlorates  “should  render  chances  of  accident 
still  more  remote  by  precautionary  measures,  such  as : 

1.  The  elimination  so  far  as  may  be  possible,  of  com¬ 
bustible  material  in  the  packages  containing  chlorate. 

2.  The  establishment  of  separate  buildings,  of  fireproof 
construction,  for  the  storage  of  chlorate. 

3.  Absolute  cleanliness,  i.  e.,  the  outside  of  the  kegs, 
the  floor  and  the  walls  of  the  store  should  be  kept 
clear  of  all  dust  and  dirt,  and  no  one  should  enter 
the  building  in  his  ordinary  boots.  Either  these 
should  be  taken  off  or  ‘overshoes’  should  be  pro¬ 
vided,  as  in  a  gunpowder  magazine.” 

A  proper  observance  and  enforcement  of  these  sugges¬ 
tions  would  serve  to  materially  mitigate  the  dangers  incident 
to  handling  these  dangerous  compounds  under  the  general 
practice  followed  in  the  United  States,  but  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  in  addition  to  the  danger  of  ignition  by  friction  or 
other  mechanical  action,  that  an  equal  and  important  hazard 
exists  where  these  chlorates  are  not  so  carefully  segregated  as 
to  prevent  accidental  or  careless  admixture  or  contact  with 
other  substances  which  are  not  compatible  with  them,  such 
for  instance,  as  many  organic  substances  of  combustible 
nature,  dangerous  fluids,  acids,  acid  producers  and  oxygen 
carriers. 


3 


Ready  ignition  and  possible  explosion  may  be  produced 
by  percussion  when  any  of  these  chlorates  “are  mixed  with 
such  organic  substances  as  sugar,  meal,  shellac,  etc.,  and 
with  charcoal,  sulphur,  or  manganese  dioxide  (when  warmed). 
With  sulphuric  acid;  with  potassium  cyanide;  with  thio¬ 
cyanates  ;  with  lead  thiocyanate ;  with  phosphorus,  or  anti¬ 
mony  sulphide.”  (Von  Schwartz.) 

The  disastrous  fire  and  explosion  at  the  Tarrant  plant 
in  New  York  City  some  years  ago  was  ascribed  to  friction 
in  handling  raw  chlorate,  or  in  forming  under  mechanical 
pressure  chlorate  tablets  containing  sugar ;  a  like  fire  and 
explosion  occurred  at  the  establishment  of  the  Sharp  & 
Dohme  Co.,  in  Baltimore,  where  chlorate  tablets  (known  as 
Santonin  Crystals),  made  from  pure  and  clean  material,  were 
being  compressed  on  a  rotary  machine  which  previously  had 
been  used  for  the  production  of  hundreds  of  tons  of  like 
tablets  without  accident;  in  this  case  the  operator  of  the 
machine,  a  man  of  ten  years’  experience  in  the  making  of 
such  tablets,  met  his  death  through  the  rupture  of  the  device. 

A  peculiar  and  interesting  incident  showing  the  extreme 
sensitiveness  and  instability  of  chlorate  of  potash  is  on  record, 
where  the  provoking  cause  is  attributed  to  mild  friction 
between  the  tablets  wrapped  in  paper  and  a  penknife,  carried 
together  in  the  pocket  of  a  man’s  clothing;  supposedly,  the  jar 
incident  to  sitting  down  caused  contact  between  the  knife  and 
the  tablets,  which  became  ignited  and  the  man  seriously 
burned  before  his  clothing  could  be  removed. 

Chlorates  are  of  great  importance  as  bases  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  high  explosives,  and  even  where  so  apparently 
harmless  a  mixture  as  chlorate  and  sugar  is  made  and  sub¬ 
jected  to  a  heat  of  250°  Fahrenheit  it  explodes  with  extreme 
violence.  Commenting  on  the  conclusions  reached  after  an 
investigation  of  an  explosion  which  occurred  in  the  Pain’s 
fireworks  factory  (England),  the  Chemist  and  Druggist,  of 
London  (1889),  states,  “Chlorate  of  potash  is  the  most  ex¬ 
plosive  substance  met  with  which  chemists  and  druggists 
have  to  deal.  By  itself  it  seldom  gives  rise  to  serious  acci¬ 
dent,  but  the  violence  of  its  character  is  occasionally  shown.” 
*  *  *  “the  results  are  of  interest  as  corroborating  previous 
observations  regarding  the  highly  sensitive  nature  to  per¬ 
cussion  and  friction  of  chlorates  to  mixtures,  particularly  at 
slightly  elevated  temperatures.  The  chemicals  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  stars  were  found  to  be  chlorates  of 
barium  and  potassium,  nitrate  of  strontium,  shellac,  coal  and 
charcoal.”  *  *  *  “It  was  found,  however,  that  one  of  the 

ingredients  (Chertier’s  copper)  of  one  of  the  stars  was  dis¬ 
tinctly  acid,  and  was  the  cause  of  the  explosion.” 

When  chlorates  become  ignited  large  volumes  of  oxygen 
are  liberated  which  adds  to  the  rapidity  and  intensity  of  the 
flame,  and  the  heat  thus  generated  is  liable  to  raise  the  tem¬ 
perature  of  contiguous  substances  to  the  point  at  which  their 


4 


volatile  and  combustible  vapors  or  gases  are  freely  given  off 
and  add  to  the  intensity  of  combustion,  and  through  com¬ 
bination  with  the  oxygen,  induce  violent  explosion ;  a  like 
result  would  ensue  through  contact  with  charred  or  carbon¬ 
ized  organic  matter,  such  as  wood,  textile  fabrics  and  the 
like  falling  into  or  upon  the  mass  of  heated  chlorate ;  in  sup¬ 
port  of  this  conclusion,  reference  is  made  to  the  very  serious 
explosion  which  occurred  as  an  “after  effect  of  a  fire’’  at  the 
Kurtz’s  chemical  works,  St,  Helen’s,  England,  May,  1899, 
where,  in  an  action  for  damages  due  to  the  explosion,  it  was 
“decided  that  chlorate  of  potash  is  a  dangerous  explosive  in 
the  presence  of  fire ;  perhaps  from  the  gases  emitted  by  the 
molten  material  in  admixture  with  gases  liberated  by  the 
combustion  of  other  material  in  the  vicinity.” 

Ingle  (The  Chemistry  of  Fire  and  Fire  Prevention- 
1900),  commenting  on  this  explosion,  states  that  the  fire  did 
not  originate  in  the  chlorate,  “where  over  150  tons  were  stored 
in  a  pure  state  *  *  *  the  explosion,  which  was  exces¬ 

sively  violent  (it  was  heard  27  miles  off),  was  due  to  the 
effect  of  heat  upon  the  chlorate  itself,”  or  was  the  result  of 
contact  with  oil  of  vitriol,  “which  was  stored  in  large  quan¬ 
tities  near  at  hand.”  *  *  *  “Potassium  chlorate  is  endo¬ 

thermic,  and  if  the  temperature  of  a  large  quantity  of  it  were 
suddenly  raised  the  oxygen  might  be  evolved  explosively  and 
the  whole  might  then  detonate.” 


7^. 


The  Home  Insurance  Company,  New  York. 


New  York,  April,  1918. 


5 


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* 


I. 


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I 


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I  ^ 

I  >  - 


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The  Fire  Hazards 
of  Soft  Coal 


(pIS) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


The  Fire  Hazards  of  Soft  Coals* 


The  broadening-  use'  of  soft  coal  for  fuel  purposes  and 
in  the  recovery  of  its  volatile  by-products  during*  the  past 
few  years  has  brought  about  its  storage  and  accumulation  in 
increasing  quantities  by  railroads,  distributors  and  large  con¬ 
sumers  at  various  localities  throughout  the  country  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  produce  conditions  which  bring  under  serious 
consideration  the  fire  hazards  incident  to  such  accumulations, 
especially  in  relation  to  fires  ascribable  to  spontaneous  com¬ 
bustion,  which,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  storage,  are 
almost  certain  to  occur  where  some  types  of  coal  are  stored 
in  quantities,  as  has  been  markedly  demonstrated  during  the 
winter  of  1917-1918,  by  the  frequency  of  fires  in  the  dirty  and 
mixed  types  of  coal  which  came  upon  the  market  under  the 
stress  of  war-time  demands,  and  we're  stored  without  possibil¬ 
ity  of  proper  separation,  thereby  presenting  conditions  war¬ 
ranting  an  attempt  to  suggest  some  means  or  methods  of 
fire  prevention  which  may  prove  of  value. 

In  1903  THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY  of 
New  York  published  for  the'  information  of  its  Agents  a 
monograph  on  “Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Soft  Coal,”  in 
which  the  conclusions  reached  were  based  upon  the  results 
of  investigations  made  by  the  author  of  this  paper  in  relation 
to  the  causes  of  fires  in  the  storage  pile's  of  soft  coal  then  in 
use  by  various  railroad  companies,  manufacturing  plants  and 
distributing  centers,  principally  located  in  the  eastern  states, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  from  a  fairly  general  compliance 
with  the  suggestions  for  fire  prevention  then  laid  down,  there 
was  a  marked  decrease  both  in  number  and  extent  of  fires  in 
such  accumulations,  it  is  in  the  hope  that  even  better  results 
may  be  secured  through  a  broader  consideration  of  this 
important  matter  that  this  paper  has  been  prepared  as  a  sup¬ 
plement  to  the  earlier  study,  bringing  the  subject  more  nearly 
up  to  date  in  the  light  of  past  experience  and  present  knowl¬ 
edge,  as  developed  through  extended  tests  and  experiments 
carried  out  during  the  past  ten  or  more  years  by  the  technical 
staff  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  and  other  accredited  author¬ 
ities,  whose  writings  have  become  available  through  publica¬ 
tion,  and  of  which  the  author  has  freely  availed  himself  in 
the  preparation  of  this  paper  without  in  every  instance  citing 
the  authority  quoted. 

*  Includes  semi-bituminous,  bituminous  and  sub-bituminous  coals  and 
lignites. 


1 


Before  taking  up  specific  consideration  of  the  fire  haz¬ 
ards  of  soft  coals,  it  is  advisable  to  bring  to  notice  that  coal 
“is  not  a  definite  unit  substance  chemically,  but  is  made  up 
of  a  great  variety  of  complex  derivatives,  various  mixtures 
of  which  may  show  the  same  ultimate  composition” ;  hence, 
while  the  value  of  chemical  analysis  as  a  basis  for  classify¬ 
ing  the  different  kinds  of  coal  remains  open  to  doubt,  a  prac¬ 
tical  system  of  classification,  based  upon  the  physical  dif¬ 
ferences  of  coals,  has  been  adopted  by  the  Geological  Survey 
and  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  which  grades  the  various  kinds  or 
types  of  coal  in  the  line  of  progressive  stages  of  coal  forma¬ 
tion,  rising  from  the  younger  and  more  volatile  lignites  to 
the  older  and  more  devolatilized  semi-bituminous  types ; 
this  system  of  classification  is  in  general  use  in  the  United 
States  and  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  COAL 

Semi-bituminous — “Is  of  great  commercial  importance,  but  is  not 
widely  distributed.  The  centers  of  production  are  the  Poca¬ 
hontas  and  New  River  fields  of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia, 
Georges  Creek  field  of  Maryland,  Windber  field  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  and  the  western  end  of  the  Arkansas  field  in  the 
vicinity  of  Fort  Smith.” 

Bituminous — “Is  the  most  important  grade  in  the  country,  and 
includes  most  of  the  coals  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
the  western  states  there  are  large  areas  of  bituminous  coal,” 
in  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Washington  and  Wyoming. 

Sub-bituminous — “The  term  ‘sub-bituminous’  has  been  adopted 
by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  what  has  generally  been 
called  ‘black  lignite,’  *  *  *  for  the  reason  that  the  coal  is 
not  lignite  in  the  sense  of  being  woody.  *  *  *  It  is  generally 
distinguished  from  lignite  by  its  color  and  freedom  from 
apparent  woody  texture,  and  from  bituminous  coal  by  the 
slacking  it  undergoes  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  As  the 
latter  is  an  important  difference  in  commercial  use,  it  has 
been  adopted  by  the  Geological  Survey  as  the  criterion  for 
the  separation  of  sub-bituminous  and  bituminous  coal.” 

Lignite — “The  term  ‘lignite’  is  restricted  to  the  coals  that  are 
distinctly  brown  and  generally  woody.  They  are  intermediate 
in  quality  between  peat  and  sub-bitumious  coal.”  Lignite 
is  abundant  in  Montana,  the  Dakotas  and  present  in  all  of 
the  Gulf  States. 

CAUSES  OF  SELF-IGNITION 

Notwithstanding  the  many  investigations,  tests  and  ex¬ 
periments  which  have  been  undertaken  to  discover  and 
explain  the  phenomenon  of  spontaneous  heating  of  soft  coal, 
the  opinions  and  conclusions  of  expert  authorities  giving- 
consideration  to  the  problem  appear  to  have  gone  no  further 
than  to  agree  that  oxidation  of  some  one  or  more  of  the 
elements  of  a  coal  compound  is  the  prime  cause,  leaving  still 
in  doubt  the  important  question  as  to  which  one  or  more  of 
these  elements,  when  combined  with  oxygen  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  may,  with  any  certainty,  be  ascribed  the  promotion 
of  oxidation  to  such  intensity  and  with  such  rapidity  as  to 
incite  ignition. 


It  is  held  that  “spontaneous  heating'  of  coal  results,  not 
from  a  self-contained  ferment-like  process  within  the  coal, 
but  from  a  slow  oxidation  of  the  coal  substance  or  its  mineral 
impurities  by  the  ogygen  of  the  air.  Spontaneous  heating 
cannot  occur  when  air  is  excluded ;  *  *  *  the  first  step 

in  the  oxidation  of  coal  is  the  formation  of  an  addition  com¬ 
pound,  or  complex,  of  oxygen  with  one  or  more  of  the  sub¬ 
stances  present  in  coal.  This  complex  is  unstable  and  decom¬ 
poses  readily,  more  readily  in  the  case  of  some  coals  than 
of  others.” 

There  appears  to  be  a  practically  unanimous  consensus 
of  opinion  between  the  experts  and  the  experienced  handlers 
of  soft  coals  that  whatever  may  be  the  elements  of  a  coal 
compound  which  are  variously  credited  with  being  promotive 
of  spontaneous  heating,  such  action  is  most  surely  promoted 
when  coal  is  stored  in  finely  comminuted  condition,  such  as 
dust,  slack  or  screenings,  and  when  these  “fines”  are  inti¬ 
mately  mixed  with  larger  sizes,  owing  to  the  fact  that  there 
is  thus  exposed  a  large  surface  to  the  action  of  the  air,  thus 
facilitating-  rapid  oxidation. 

While  the  chemical  analysis  of  two  or  more  coals  may 
exhibit  close  approximation  to  similarity  in  their  compounds, 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  each  will  develop  like 
qualities  in  relation  to  spontaneous  heating  under  like  condi¬ 
tions,  but  it  seems  fair  to  assume  that  where  two  or  more 
coals  reveal  close  similarity  in  content  of  certain  elements 
which  are  quite  generally  supposed  to  act  as  heat  promoters, 
they  may  be  grouped  as  a  class  deserving  special  considera¬ 
tion  in  respect  to  such  phenomena ;  while  this  assumption 
is  in  the  nature  of  a  generalization,  it  appears  to  be  supported 
in  some  measure  by  the  fact  that  a  careful  study  of  the  many 
coal  analyses  published  by  the  Geological  Survey  and  the 
Bureau  of  Mines  reveals  a  quite  marked  similarity  between 
the  compounds  of  coals  of  types  not  specifically  credited  with 
being  “fiery”  in  character,  and  those  of  well  recognized 
tendency  to  spontaneous  heating,  in  which  latter  type  the 
predominating  elements  appear  to  be  the  presence  in  com¬ 
bination  of  moisture  in  excess  of  4%  ;  volatiles  of  over  15%  ; 
ash  and  impurities  in  excess  of  6%  ;  sulphur  above  2%  and 
oxygen  in  excess  of  7%  ;  this  combination  being  particularly 
noticeable  in  relation  to  all  coals  of  a  friable  nature  which 
have  a  tendency  to  disintegrate  in  “weathering”  and  are 
readily  reduced  to  dust,  slack  or  “fines”  when  not  carefully 
handled  in  loading  and  unloading. 

It  is  not  intended  to  assert  as  an  established  fact  that 
the  combination  of  elements  above  noted  will  always  prove 
a  certain  indication  that  any  coal  so  constituted  will  develop 
“fiery”  tendencies  under  any  fixed  conditions,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  in  many  instances  “fiery”  coals  are  found  wherein 
any  one  or  more  of  these  compounds  may  differ  in  the 


3 


presence  of  its  elements  in  largely  reduced  percentages  of 
volatiles,  sulphur  and  oxygen,  such  for  instance,  as  the  semi- 
bituminous  coals  of  the  Windber  field  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Pocahontas  and  New  River  fields  of  Virginia  and  West  Vir¬ 
ginia,  as  also  in  some  of  the  bituminous  fields  of  western 
Kentucky,  and  many  of  the  Missouri  fields. 

The  fact  that  some  combinations  of  certain  elements 
which  are  common  to  all  types  of  soft  coals  appear  to  be 
especially  prominent  in  the  make-up  of  coals  of  known 
“fiery”  tendency,  presents  a  condition  of  sufficient  interest 
and  importance  to  warrant  more  careful  investigation  and 
study  in  respect  to  what  effect,  and  within  what  limits,  the 
presence  of  these  elements  in  a  coal  compound  may,  or  may 
not  have  to  do  with  the  promotion  of  spontaneous  heating. 

Considering  now  the  supposed  causes  of  spontaneous 
heating  of  soft  coals,  the  subject  may  best  be  treated  by 
taking  up  in  detail  those  elements,  which,  as  before  noted, 
seem  to  serve  an  active  part  in  the  stimulation  of  oxidation 
in  coals  of  known  “fiery”  character  or  tendency. 

Moisture — “The  moisture  in  coal  consists  of  (1)  extraneous 
moisture  (from  external  sources)  ;  (2)  inherent  moisture, 

which  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  original  vegetable  matter 
irom  which  the  coal  is  derived.” 

While  it  still  remains  a  disputed  question  as  to  what 
effect  the  presence  of  moisture  in  coal  may  have  on  its  liabil¬ 
ity  to  spontaneously  heat,  experience  gained  in  the  investiga¬ 
tion  of  causes,  where  fire  loss  claims  have  been  made,  strongly 
supports  the  assumption  that  moisture  does  promote  heating, 
with  possible  ignition,  in  some,  if  not  in  all  types  of  soft 
coal ;  in  further  support  of  the  conclusion,  the  following 
excerpt  from  a  technical  paper  may  prove  of  interest : — (1) 

“Evidently  the  rates  of  oxidation  of  different  coals  are  not 
effected  uniformly  by  moisture.”  *  *  *  “However,  the  opinion 
among  coal  shippers  and  consumers  that  there  is  more  danger 
of  spontaneous  combustion  during  warm,  wet  weather  than  during 
dry  may  have  another  basis,  the  physical  change  brought  about 
by  wetting  the  coal  on  the  surface  of  the  pile.  Such  wetting 
reduces  the  proportion  of  voids  or  open  spaces  in  the  mass.  If 
the  coal  is  divided  into  particles  fine  enough,  the  water  will  fill 
the  voids  completely  and  be  held  there  by  capillary  attraction. 
Such  a  mass  of  coal  and  water  on  any  part  of  a  pile  would  block 
the  passage  of  air  at  that  place.  As  a  result  the  conditions  of 
ventilation  in  the  pile  before  the  wetting  would  be  changed  so 
that,  in  some  instances,  the  heat  generated  by  the  gradual  oxida¬ 
tion  of  the  coal  would  be  retained  until  the  temperature  of  igni¬ 
tion  was  reached.”  *  *  *  “The  conditions  described  have  been 
approximated  to  a  degree  in  many  storage  piles  of  coal.  In 
these  piles  moisture  had  a  decided  influence  in  the  production 
of  spontaneous  fire.” 


(1)  Katz,  S.  H.-Porter,  H.  C.-“Effects  of  Moisture  on  the  Spontaneous  Heating 
of  Stored  Coal.”  Technical  Paper  172,  Bureau  of  Mines  (1917). 


4 


Published  records  of  coal  fires  show  that  some  types  of 
coal  are  so  susceptible  as  to  ignite  when  rained  upon  while 
in  transit  in  open  cars,  and  also  when  piled  in  the  open ;  this 
result  being  especially  notable  in  relation  to  the  sensitiveness 
of  slack  or  “fines”  from  bituminous  coals  of  a  friable  nature, 
such  for  instance  as  Hocking  Valley  (Ohio)  ;  those  from 
Iowa,  southwestern  Illinois,  some  localities  in  southwestern 
Kentucky,  and  particularly  of  the  Bevier  district  of  Missouri, 
which  latter  type  appears  to  be  even  more  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  moisture  than  are  the  sub-bituminous  coals  of  the 
Sheridan  district  of  Wyoming  and  the  lignites  of  the  West. 

Coals  showing  a  natural  high  moisture  content  “are  low 
in  the  scale  of  coal  formation,  and  consequently  most  sus¬ 
ceptible  to  deterioration  on  exposure  to  atmospheric  oxygen”  ; 
these  types  of  coal  appear  to  exhibit  marked  avidity  for  the 
absorption  of  additional  moisture  and  oxygen.  But  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  a  large  excess  of  moisture,  approach¬ 
ing-  complete  wetting,  does  not  present  the  evil  conditions 
accredited  to  that  of  simple  moisture,  and  to  the  important 
fact  that  complete  submergence  under  water  is  an  absolute 
preventive  of  spontaneous  combustion ;  in  all  probability,  the 
only  certainly  known  preventive  of  such  action  in  any  or  all 
soft  coals. 

Volatiles — Consist  “chiefly  of  the  combustible  gases,  hydrogen, 
carbon  monoxide,  methane  and  other  hydrocarbons  and  some 
non-combustible  gases,”  but  “does  not  signify  a  definite  com¬ 
pound  that  was  in  the  coal  before  it  was  heated.  Different 
degrees  or  rates  of  heating  will  give  more  or  less  volatile 
matter.”  Coals  high  in  volatile  matter  will,  in  a  great  many 
cases,  be  high  in  sulphur  content,  and  “the  rate  of  oxidizabil¬ 
ity  varies  approximately  as  the  percentage  of  volatile  matter.” 

What  direct  effect  the  presence  of  volatile  matter  may 
have  in  the  promotion  of  spontaneous  heating  is  as  yet 
undecided,  for,  while  it  is  admittedly  true  that  the  high 
volatile  coals  of  the  West  are  usually  very  liable  to  heat 
spontaneously,  this  property  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  chemical 
nature  of  their  constituent  substances  rather  than  to  the 
amount  of  volatile  matter  they  contain ;  the  presence  of 
so-called  “intrinsic”  impurities  appearing  to  play  quite  an 
important  part  in  the  promotion  of  such  chemical  reaction 
as  to  produce  oxidation  to  the  point  of  ignition. 

In  illustration  of  the  present  uncertainty  as  to  the  effect 
of  volatile  matter  in  relation  to  the  heating  of  coal,  it  may 
be  stated  that  the  Bureau  of  Mines(2)  reports  as  the  result 
of  its  investigations  that  “appalachian  coals,  with  17%  to 
21%  of  volatile  matter,  gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble  from 
spontaneous  fires.  Moreover,  several  large  works  report 
that  their  low-volatile  coals  are  more  troublesome  in  respect 
to  spontaneous  fires  than  their  high-volatile  gas  coals,”  and 

(2) — Porter,  H.  C.,  and  Ovitz,  F.  K. — “Deterioration  and  Spontaneous  Heating 
of  Coal  in  Storage.”  Technical  Paper  No.  16,  Bureau  of  Mines  (1912). 


5 


that  there  is  “no  falling  behind  of  the  ‘smokeless’  type  of 
coal  in  furnishing  instances  of  spontaneous  combustion,  and 
no  cause  for  placing  especial  confidence  in  this  type  of  coal 
for  safety  in  storage.” 

Asli — Represents  the  incombustible  residue  left  from  the  com¬ 
plete  combustion  of  the  coal ;  it  is  derived  from  the  inorganic 
matter  in  the  coal,  composed  largely  of  compounds  of  silica, 
alumina,  lime  and  iron,  together  with  smaller  quantities  of 
magnesia,  titanium  and  alkaline  compounds. 

Ash  is  considered  as  one  of  the  “two  great  impurities” 
of  coal  (the  other  being  oxygen),  and  is  classed  as  being  of 
negative  and  anticalorific  value.  The  constituents  of  ash  are 
variable  and  appear  to  conform  to  no  known  law  in  varia¬ 
tion,  and  present  conditions  promotive  of  spontaneous  heat¬ 
ing  apparently  in  proportion  to  their  complexity.  High  ash 
content  usually  indicates  high  volatile  and  high  oxygen  con¬ 
tent  and  in  many  cases  also  shows  a  high  sulphur  content. 

Coals  of  unsorted,  “mine  run”  type,  and  other  coals  from 
which  incombustible  matter  has  not  been  removed  before 
piling  have  proven  particularly  susceptible  to  spontaneous 
heating. 

Sulphur — “Occurs  in  coal  as  pyrite  or  ‘marcasite,’  as  sulphate  of 
iron,  lime  and  aluminum,  and  in  combination  with  the  coal 
substance  as  organic  compounds.” 

Pyritic  sulphur  may  appear  in  coals  as  ordinary  or  yel¬ 
low  pyrite,  technically  classed  as  “mundic,”  or  as  white  pyrite, 
specifically  known  as  “marcasite” ;  the  two  kinds  of  pyrites 
often  occur  in  combination  or  association ;  the  white  or  mar¬ 
casite  variety  is  lower  in  specific  gravity  than  the  common 
or  yellow  pyrite,  and  is  more  liable  to  oxidation  than  is  the 
yellow ;  the  greater  the  proportion  of  marcasite  the  more 
liability  to  alteration  in  combination.  Pyrite  is  found  to  be 
present  in  some  coal  beds  in  the  form  of  balls,  lenses  and 
bands,  and  in  others  disseminated  throughout  the  coal  in 
finely  comminuted  particles  or  veinlets  which  are  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  of  removal  by  mechanical  means. 

The  effect  of  sulphur  on  the  spontaneous  heating  of 
coal  has  provoked  much  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion 
in  the  past,  and  appears  to  be  still  an  unsettled  question ; 
many  users  and  handlers  of  large  quantities  of  soft  coals 
appear  to  consider  it  as  the  prime  incentive,  and  as  partic¬ 
ularly  active  when  in  a  finely  comminuted  state  and  sub¬ 
jected  to  moisture,  in  which  condition  it  is  said  to  exhibit 
great  avidity  for  oxygen,  with  consequent  heat-producing 
reaction. 

Notwithstanding  the  uncertainty  attached  to  this  ques¬ 
tion,  many  of  the  accredited  authorities  on  coal  fires  give 
caution  as  to  storage  of  coal  showing  high  sulphur  content, 
and  rightly  assume  that  it  is  safer  to  store  only  that  with 
low  content  of  that  element;  this  conclusion  appears  to  be 
amply  justified  through  practical  field  experience  in  the 


6 


investigation  of  causes  of  coal  fires,  and  also  to  be  strongly 
supported  by  the  record  of  frequent  fires  in  the  pyritiferous 
and  carboniferous  black  slate  common  to  the  Menominee 
iron  fields  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  it  being  stated  that 
“these  black  slates,  if  they  contain  sufficient  pyrite  and  car¬ 
bonaceous  matter,  ignite  spontaneously  when  exposed  to  the 
air  under  certain  conditions,”  and  that  fires  in  the  crumpled, 
crushed  and  broken  rock  and  slate  piled  at  the  mine  dumps 
“seem  to  be  of  such  common  occurrence  that  it  is  seldom 
that  a  fire  cannot  be  found  in  some  part  of  the  black  slate 
dump.”(1) 

The  investigator  of  these  fires  concludes  that  “a  most 
important  factor  seems  to  be  the  presence  of  finely  divided 
masses  or  crystals  of  pyrite  intimately  mixed  with  the  car¬ 
bonaceous  matter  and  disseminated  throughout  the  rock.” 
Practically  similar  conditions  prevail  in  the  culm  piles  of  the 
anthracite  regions  in  Pennsylvania,  where  fires,  supposedly 
due  to  the  presence  of  pyrites,  are  of  long  record  and  ob¬ 
servation,  almost  every  culm  pile  constantly  giving  off  hot 
vapors,  steam  and  smoke  from  the  mine  refuse. 

In  further  support  of  the  contention  that  the  oxidation 
of  pyrites  does  result  in  the  promotion  of  heating  in  coals 
and  other  carbonaceous  matter,  it  is  of  interest  to  cite  the 
occurrence  of  fires  in  the  dark,  soft  shale  and  low-grade 
lignite  formations  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  at  Culebra 
Cut,  where  it  was  discovered  that  the  material  removed  from 
the  bore-holes  or  by  blasting,  heated  spontaneously  on 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  even  the  interior  of  the  bore¬ 
holes  giving  off  heated  vapors  which  deposited  white  and 
yellow  flocculent  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  bore.  An 
investigation  of  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon  resulted  in  the 
conclusion  that  heating  was  due  to  the  presence  of  micro¬ 
scopic  particles  of  pyrite  in  the  mass,  which  on  exposure  to 
the  air  oxidized  with  sufficient  energy  to  incite  ignition  of 
the  carbonaceous  matter  of  the  shale  and  lignite,  “the  main¬ 
spring  of  action  here,  then,  as  in  other  instances  observed, 
has  undoubtedly  been  the  oxidation  of  the  pyrites. ”(2) 

Oxygen — Is  classed  as  one  of  the  great  impurities  in  coal,  and 
as  of  negative  or  anti-calorific  value  in  relation  to  the  effi¬ 
ciency  of  coal  as  fuel. 

Oxygen  is  the  active  principle  in  support  of  combustion 
which  may  be  set  up  by  oxidation  of  the  coal  substance  or 
its  mineral  impurities,  the  rate  of  oxidation  showing  wide 
variation  between  different  classes  of  coal,  generally  in  close 
conformity  with  the  known  variations  in  inflammability  and 
ease  of  ignition,  as  well  as  in  their  tendency  to  deteriorate 

(1)  Higgins,  Edwin. — “Fires  in  Eake  Superior  Iron  Mines.”  Technical  Paper 
No.  59,  Bureau  of  Mines  (1913). 

(2)  McDonald,  D.  F. — “Some  Engineering  Problems  of  the  Panama  Canal,  &c.” 
Bulletin  86,  Bureau  of  Mines  (1915). 


7 


or  to  become  heated  spontaneously  when  exposed  to  the  air. 
Freshly  mined  coal  and  the  fresh  surfaces  of  crushed  coal 
take  up  oxygen  readily  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  “strange 
as  it  may  seem,  the  oxygen  content  of  coal  appears  to  bear 
a  direct  relation  to  the  avidity  with  which  coal  absorbs 
oxygen ;  high  oxygen  coals  absorb  oxygen  readily,  and  there¬ 
fore  have  marked  tendency  to  spontaneous  combustion. ”(3) 

A  study  of  a  large  number  of  analyses  of  soft  coal  devel¬ 
ops  the  interesting  fact  that  in  almost  every  instance  a  high 
oxygen  content  is  accompanied  by  high  moisture,  and  in 
many  cases  this  condition  is  supplemented  by  high  volatile 
and  ash,  with  sulphur  content  varying  from  very  low  to  very 
high,  with  an  average  of  about  60%  of  the  analyses  examined 
showing  an  excess  of  sulphur  above  the  2%  limit  assumed 
to  indicate  the  danger  point  for  spontaneous  combustion, 
thus,  in  a  measure  at  least,  supporting  the  contention  set 
forth  that  in  some  combination  of  these  specified  elements  is 
to  be  found  the  probable  cause  for  the  notably  “fiery”  nature 
of  some  types  of  soft  coals,  and  it  may  possibly  be  found 
that  in  this  view  of  the  subject  there  is  sufficient  merit  to 
warrant  further  study  and  investigation  by  those  fitted  and 
equipped  for  the  task,  to  the  end  that  the  many  conflicting 
theories  and  differences  of  opinion  now  advanced  in  attempted 
solution  of  this  important  problem  may  be  displaced  by  more 
definite  and  authoritative  conclusions. 

In  summary  of  what  may  be  termed  the  “inherent” 
causes  influencing  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  soft  coal,  it 
seems  fair  to  say  that  the  consensus  of  both  lay  and  expert 
opinion  is  more  or  less  in  general  accord  with  the  following 
conclusions  : 

1 —  That  practically  all  soft  coals  and  lignites  are  subject  to 
ignite  spontaneously,  under  favorable  but  widely  differing 
conditions. 

2 —  That  spontaneous  heating  of  coal  is  due  to  the  slow  absorp¬ 
tion  of  oxygen  from  the  air  at  normal  temperatures,  and 
that  heat  stimulates  oxidation. 

3 —  That  oxidation  is  self-propagating,  producing  heat  even  in 
its  initial  stages,  reaching  the  point  of  ignition  if  its  heat  is 
not  dissipated  as  rapidly  as  it  is  generated ;  the  greater  the 
surface  exposed  to  the  air,  the  more  rapid  the  oxidation. 

4—  That  finely  comminuted  coal  (screenings,  slack  and  dust) 
oxidizes  more  readily  than  lump  or  screened  coal,  the  condi¬ 
tions  being  aggravated  by  the  presence  of  natural  impurities 
and  extraneous  matter. 

5 —  “That  spontaneous  combustion  cannot  occur  when  air  is 
excluded. 

6 —  That  no  one  element  of  a  coal  compound  has  been  agreed 
upon  as  that  solely  responsible  for  spontaneous  ignition  by 
reason  of  its  avidity  for  oxygen. 

7 —  That  moisture  promotes  oxidation  and  heat  producing 
reaction. 


(3)  Porter,  H.  C.— Ovitz,  F.  K.  “Deterioration  and  Spontaneous  Heating  of 
Coal  in  Storage.”  Technical  Paper  No.  16,  Bureau  of  Mines  (1912). 


8 


8 —  lhat  ash-producing  elements  aid  oxidation  in  proportion  to 
their  complexity. 

9 —  That  sulphur  (as  pyrites)  is  an  active  element  promoting 
oxidation. 

10 —  That  high  oxygen  content  usually  indicates  a  readily  friable 
coal,  and  also  the  probable  presence  of  other  elements  stim¬ 
ulative  of  spontaneous  ignition. 

11 —  That  in  some  undetermined  percentage,  moisture,  volatiles, 
ash,  sulphur  and  oxygen,  as  constituents  of  the  coal  compound, 
may  each,  or  in  some  uncertain  combination  incite  com¬ 
bustion. 

Supplementing-  this  resume  of  what  may  be  termed  as  the 
“inherent”  causes  of  spontaneous  heating  of  coal,  it  is  well 
to  realize  that  heat-producing  reaction  may  be  induced  and 
accelerated  by  the  physical  condition  of  the  coal,  when,  and 
as,  piled  under  general  practice,  hence,  this  combination  of 
hazards  seems  to  warrant  consideration  and  treatment  by 
bringing  into  correlation  the  several  and  complex  inherent 
and  physical  properties  in  such  manner  as  to  indicate  the 
proper  precautions  for  observation  as  a  means  of  minimizing 
the  occurrence  of  fire,  and  to  suggest  the  methods  to  be 
pursued  in  fire  prevention  and  fire  extinction,  in  such  man¬ 
ner  as  may  prove  to  be  worthy  of  acceptance  by  those  who 
desire  to  protect  themselves  from  the  vexation,  worry  and 
expense  incident  to  coal  fires,  whether  insured  or  not  insured. 

The  following  suggestions  are  presented  under  a  full 
appreciation  of  the  fact  that  they  may  not  secure  general 
and  unquestioned  acceptance  in  every  instance,  nor  that  they 
will  prove  of  equal  value  under  all  conditions  of  storage 
usual  and  necessary  in  practice,  as  the  adoption  of  these  pre¬ 
cautions  might  in  some  cases  prove  to  be  difficult  of  accom¬ 
plishment  because  of  physical  conditions  or  by  reason  of  the 
expense  incident  to  full  compliance,  but  at  the  same  time, 
the  writer  is  confident  that  where  these  suggestions  are  prop¬ 
erly  complied  with,  there  will  result  a  freedom  from  fire 
troubles  fully  warranting  the  effort  and  expense  incurred  in 
providing  the  method  and  system  herewith  submitted. 

SUGGESTIONS 

(1)  — Avoid  piling  in  excess  of  twelve  (12')  feet  in  height  and 
of  more  than  1500  tons  in  volume  in  any  one  mass.  Trim 
piles  in  such  manner  that  no  point  within  its  interior  will 
be  more  than  ten  (10')  feet  from  an  air  cooled  surface.  Main¬ 
tain  a  clear  and  open  space  of  at  least  five  (5')  feet  between 
the  base  lines  of  each  pile  in  order  to  facilitate  handling  and 
to  prevent  spread  of  fire. 

Large  masses  of  coal  prevent  the  dissipation  of.  incipient 
heat  due  to  slow  oxidation,  and  also  present  physical  diffi¬ 
culties  in  handling  and  removal  in  case  ignition  occurs. 

(2)  — If  possible,  store  only  clean,  screened  lump  coal;  if  space 
permits  it  is  advisable  to  pile  separately  the  different  sizes. 

Some  accredited  authorities  hold  that  storing  sized  lump 
coal  insures  such  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  mass 
as  to  carry  off  incipient  heat  as  generated,  and  thus  to  per¬ 
mit  its  indefinite  storage  without  danger  of  heating,  but  this 


9 


contention  does  not  appear  to  be  generally  accepted,  as  field 
practice  develops  enough  exceptions  to  warrant  close  super¬ 
vision  of  such  piles  to  discover  tendency  to  heat. 

(3)  — Readily  friable  coals  (usually  those  showing  both  high 
moisture  and  oxygen  content),  should  be  stored  in  closely 
compacted  piles  of  both  small  area  and  height,  entirely  sep¬ 
arated  from  other  piles  by  a  clear,  open  space  of  at  least 
five  (5')  feet  between  base  lines,  and  be  subjected  to  frequent 
tests  and  close  observation  to  discover  tendency  to  heat. 

Friable  coals  absorb  both  oxygen  and  moisture  with 
avidity,  and  frequently  ignite  spontaneously  on  exposure  to 
the  air ;  some  types  of  bituminous,  and  practically  all  types 
of  sub-bituminous  coals  and  lignites  suffer  degradation  upon 
exposure  to  the  air  and  the  elements ;  some  types  igniting 
spontaneously  when  rained  upon  in  transit  or  when  piled  in 
the  open. 

(4)  — Prevent  the  production  and  accumulation  of  dust  or  “fines” 
through  breakage  which  results  from  dropping  the  coal  from 
“grab-buckets”  or  other  means  of  deposit  at  excessive  heights 
and  by  too  frequently  handling.  The  large  surface  exposed 
by  accumulation  of  dust  or  “fines”  promotes  rapid  oxidation. 

(5)  — Avoid  alternate  stratification  of  “fines”  and  coarse  coal  in 
the  pile ;  such  disposition  prevents  circulation  of  air  through 
the  mass  and  facilitates  oxidation  of  the  dust,  retarding  the 
dissipation  of  heat  thus  generated.  If  necessary  to  pile 
unscreened  coal,  care  should  be  taken  to  intermix  the  coarse 
and  the  fines  as  evenly  as  possible  throughout  the  mass. 

(6)  — Storage  of  dirty,  unscreened  coal,  such  as  “run-of-mine,” 
or  that  showing  an  undue  content  of  incombustible  matter, 
common  to  the  practice  under  “war  time”  pressure  has  proven 
to  be  dangerous  as  a  fire-breeder.  Such  coal  should  be  stored 
in  separated,  low  piles  of  small  volume,  and  be  frequently 
tested  for  evidences  of  heating. 

(7)  — Storage  of  mixed  types  of  coal  in  same  pile  or  bin,  as  in 
some  instances  became  necessary  under  the  rulings  and  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  U.  S.  Fuel  Administration  in  the  adoption  of  its 
pooling  system,  has  proven  a  dangerous  practice,  causing 
many  spontaneous  fires,  presumably  due  to  the  presence  of 
coals  of  a  fiery  nature  provoking  the  ignition  of  those  less 
susceptible  to  such  action. 

(8)  — Storage  of  wet  coal,  or  the  wetting  of  coal  in  a  pile,  serves 
to  promote  active  oxidation ;  repeated  wetting  and  drying  of 
coal  aggravates  this  condition.  Wet  coal  should  be  used  up 
at  once,  if  possible,  or  be  spread  out  to  become  dry  before 
being  added  to  a  pile. 

(9)  — Coal  stored  in  such  manner  as  to  surround  or  be  in  contact 
with  wooden  posts,  trestle  supports  or  other  irregular  sur¬ 
faces  enveloping  the  mass,  and/or  on  porous  bottoms,  such 
as  coarse  cinders  and  the  like,  provides  interstices  or  chan¬ 
nels  facilitating  the  entrance  of  air  to  the  mass  in  sufficient 
volume  to  induce  slow  oxidation  at  points  of  contact;  in 
many  coal  fires  the  seat  of  initial  ignition  has  been  definitely 
located  at  such  points. 

(10) — Avoid  attempts  at  the  artificial  ventilation  of  the  interior 
of  a  coal  pile  by  the  use  of  iron  pipes  (perforated  or  not), 
wooden  or  other  flues  and  the  like,  as  experiments  of  this 
character  have  generally  proven  to  be  more  harmful  than 
otherwise,  owing  to  the  passage  of  air  around  these  devices 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  set  up  slow  oxidation,  but  too  small 
in  volume  to  carry  off  the  heat  thus  generated. 


10 


(11)  — Where  coal  is  stored  under  cover  or  in  an  enclosed  struc¬ 
ture,  free  circulation  of  air  should  be  provided  in  order  to 
carry  off  methane  and  other  gases  escaping  from  the  coal, 
and  thus  prevent  its  ignition  and  explosion  on  contact  with 
incandescent  masses  of  coal,  or  from  other  causes. 

(12)  — Avoid  piling  coal  in  contact  with  boiler  or  furnace  walls, 
against  or  close  to  steam  pipes,  hot  air  flues  or  other  external 
sources  of  heat.  Heat  stimulates  oxidation  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  in  temperature. 

(13)  — When  coals  of  known  or  suspected  “fiery”  type  must  be 
kept  in  stock,  make  the  piles  as  small  in  volume  and  low  in 
height  as  may  be  practicable,  storing  screenings  separately 
if  possible.  Keep  under  close  supervision  to  detect  heating, 
making  frequent  rod  or  other  tests,  and  maintain  a  clear, 
open  space  of  not  less  than  five  (5')  feet  between  bases  of 
piles. 

(14)  — Screenings,  slack  and  “fines”  from  practically  all  types  of 
soft  coal  are  so  susceptible  to  spontaneous  heating  as  to  be 
classified  with  known  fiery  types,  and  should  be  piled  in  as 
small  volume  as  practicable,  low  in  height  and  closely  com¬ 
pacted  in  a  mass,  and  be  under  close  observation  for  heat, 
with  a  clear,  open  space  of  five  (5')  feet  between  bases. 

(15)  — When  possible,  it  is  best  to  select  for  storage  that  type  of 
coal  which  shows  a  low  sulphur  (pyrite-marcasite)  content. 
Where  high  pyritic  coal  must  be  stored  it  should  be  screened 
and  formed  into  low  piles  of  small  volume,  properly  separated 
from  other  accumulations,  and  be  kept  as  free  from  moisture 
as  may  be  possible,  with  close  supervision  and  frequent  tests 
for  evidence  of  heating.  Screenings  and  fines  from  this  type 
are  usually  very  susceptible  to  oxidation  when  moist  or  wet, 
and  should  be  piled  separately  in  low  compacted  mass,  and 
be  kept  under  close  observation  for  symptoms  of  heating. 

(16)  — All  piles  of  coal  should  be  frequently  tested  to  discover 
indications  of  heating,  preferably  by  driving  iron  rods  into 
the  mass  at  various  locations,  letting  them  remain  in  place 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  absorb  such  heat  as  may 
be  present.  If  on  removal  of  the  rod  it  develops  heat  enough 
to  prove  painful  when  held  in  the  naked  hand  (say  160°  Fah.), 
it  becomes  evident  that  incipient  combustion  has  been  set 
up,  demanding  prompt  attention  to  prevent  an  actual  out¬ 
break  of  fire. 

(17)  — The  only  absolute  preventive  of  spontaneous  combustion 
in  any  type  of  soft  coal  is  that  of  its  storage  under  water, 
thus  entirely  preventing  access  of  air.  Submerged  storage 
is  an  expensive  method  of  preventing  heating  and  combustion, 
not  in  frequent  use  in  practice  except  where  large  quantities 
oi  known  “fiery”  coals  are  to  be  kept  for  long  periods  of 
time. 

It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  any  coal  super¬ 
imposed  upon  the  submerged  portion  and  exposed  to  the  air, 
is  liable  to  become  heated  through  absorption  of  moisture 
from  its  submerged  base. 

FIRE  EXTINGUISHMENT 

While  it  is  an  essential  precaution  to  always  maintain  a  large 
and  reliable  supply  of  water  under  adequate  pressure,  supple¬ 
mented  by  the  provision  of  hydrants,  hose  and  other  suitable  fire 
fighting  apparatus  for  the  general  protection  of  any  plant  where 
large  accumulations  of  coal  are  stored,  it  is  unfortunately  true 
that  the  use  of  water  as  a  means  of  extinguishing  coal  fires  is 
not  of  general  approval  by  those  experienced  in  the  storage  and 
handling  of  soft  coals,  as  under  the  best  of  conditions  its  use 


11 


for  that  purpose  is  more  liable  to  prove  harmful  than  beneficial. 
Unless  water  can  be  applied  directly  at  the  seat  of  a  fire  at  its 
incipiency,  and  in  such  volume  as  to  completely  drown  out  com¬ 
bustion  by  cooling  the  heated  mass  to  a  degree  of  temperature 
below  that  of  its  ignition  point,  its  use  in  less  volume  would 
materially  aggravate  the  trouble  by  closing  the  interstices  through 
which  the  heat  of  combustion  might  find  means  of  escape. 

Practical  experience  in  field  practice  of  handling  coal  fires 
demonstrates  the  fact  that  where  coal  is  piled  not  in  excess  of 
twelve  (12')  feet  in  height,  nor  more  than  1,500  tons  in  volume 
that  the  most  expeditious  and  satisfactory  method  of  controlling 
a  fire  after  its  position  in  the  pile  has  been  definitely  located,  is 
to  break  into  the  top  of  the  pile  and  channel  down  to  the  seat  of 
heating,  removing  the  affected  portion  and  spreading  it  upon  the 
ground,  in  piles  not  over  two  feet  in  height  if  combustion  has  not 
reached  the  stage  of  incandescence,  so  that  it  may  gradually  cool 
off  by  air  circulation;  if  the  mass  is  aglow,  it  should  be  spread 
out  thin  and  be  quenched  with  water. 

The  salvaged  coal  should  be  used  up  at  once  or  be  otherwise 
disposed  of  without  being  returned  to  the  pile.  The  proper 

handling  of  coal  under  this  method  has  long  been  practiced  by 

several  of  the  leading  railroad  companies  of  the  country  with 
satisfactory  results,  notably  where  proper  provision  and  use  of 
suitable  mechanical  means  and  appliances  have  facilitated  the 
rapid  handling  and  transfer  of  the  coal  when  necessary. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  very  essence  of 

safety  from  fire  in  coal  is  that  of  constant  watchfulness  and 
intelligent  supervision  to  discover  at  its  incipiency  any  ten¬ 
dency  to  heat,  followed  by  prompt  and  efficient  action  in 
locating  and  extinguishing  any  sign  of  ignition  before  it 
spreads  to  larger  proportions.  Safety  will  be  further  insured 
through  the  selection  and  storage  of  as  high  grade  as  pos¬ 
sible,  and  by  adherence  to  accepted  good  practice  in  methods 
of  storage  and  handling. 

This  paper  having  been  prepared  and  published  for  the 
information  and  guidance  of  our  Agents  under  whose  super¬ 
vision  may  come  the  opportunity  to  accept  or  reject  liability 
on  coal  in  storage,  it  is  assumed  that  the  matter  covered  and 
the  suggestions  as  to  fire  hazard  and  fire  prevention  herein 
presented  may  prove  a  sufficient  guide  to  insure  intelligent 
inspection  of  the  conditions  found  to  exist  in  any  case,  and 
that  all  reports  of  inspection  will  specifically  cover  the  salient 
points  as  indicated,  and  include,  where  possible,  specific 
information  as  to  the  locality  or  district  and  mine  from  which 
the  coal  was  secured,  as  also,  at  what  season  of  the  year  coal 
is  usually  stocked,  in  order  to  enable  the  home  office  to  reach 
an  intelligent  conclusion  as  to  final  acceptance  of  the  prof¬ 
fered  hazard. 


New  York,  December,  1918. 


12 


Fire  Prevention 

and 

Fire  Protection 


For  Manufacturing 
Plants 


BY 

F.  M.  GRISWOLD 

General  Inspector 


(psq) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


Fire  Prevention  and  Fire  Protection 
for  Manufacturing  Plants 


By  F.  M.  Griswold,  G.  I. 


Gentlemen  : 

Let  me  assure  you  that  I  very  highly  appreciate  the  privi¬ 
lege  of  addressing  an  assemblage  of  this  character,  realizing 
that  I  have  before  me  men  of  more  than  ordinary  intelligence, 
whose  study  under  capable  instructors  has  prepared  them  to 
readily  grasp  the  importance  of  fire  prevention  and  fire’  pro¬ 
tection  as  applied  to  manufacturing  plants  as  an  essential 
element  in  plant-design,  and  who  are  therefore  mentally 
fitted  to  assimilate  the  techinal  and  practical  features  em¬ 
bodied  in  that  new  branch  of  science  known  as  “Fire  Pro¬ 
tection  Engineering,”  a  knowledge  of  which  is  in  my  opinion, 
a  necessity  in  the  proper  rounding  out  of  the  technical  equip¬ 
ment  of  these  young  men  who  are  about  to  venture  into  the 
field  of  endeavor  and  accomplishment  for  which  they  have 
prepared  themselves,  and  wherein  the  opportunity  for  reward 
and  honors  is  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  those  who  strive. 

In  view  of  the  recent  establishment  of  a  department  in 
your  University  covering  the  science  of  “Fire  Protection,” 
I  fear  that  it  may  not  be  possible  for  me  to  tell  you  very 
much  with  which  you  are  not  somewhat  familiar  through  the 
course  of  lectures  which  have  already  been  delivered  on  the 
subject;  however,  in  a  matter  of  such  broad  scope  and 
transcendent  importance  to  the  welfare  of  the  individual  and 
to  the  nation  as  a  whole,  iteration  and  reiteration  is  not  only 
excusable,  but  is  a  necessity,  born  of  the  fearful  toll  which 
the  people  of  this  country  are  paying  on  account  of  the 
ravages  of  fire,  which  is  yearly  dissipating  hundreds  of  mil¬ 
lions  dollars  of  the  values  vested  in  our  created  resources, 
for  the  conservation  of  which  the  public  conscience  needs  to 

*Lecture  delivered  to  Fourth  Year  Class  on  Manufacturing  Plant- 
design,  Columbia  University,  9th  May,  1911. 


8 


1 


be  awakened  to  a  proper  sense  of  the  responsibility  which 
rests  upon  each  individual  to  personally  endeavor  to  check 
this  needless  waste  of  both  life  and  property,  which  is  the 
result  of  selfish  carelessness  and  indifference  in  relation  to 
prevention  measures. 

I  trust  therefore  that  you  will  pardon  me  if  I  say  a  few 
words  on  the  subject  of  the  fire  waste  in  this  country,  before 
giving  attention  to  more  specific  matters  relative  to  fire  pre¬ 
vention  and  fire  protection  as  applied  to  manufacturing 
plants.  Assuming  that  each  of  those  within  reach  of  my 
voice  is  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  activities  of  the  officials 
of  the  general  government  in  relation  to  the  conservation 
of  the  natural  resources  of  our  country,  and  that  most  of 
you  are  ready  to  commend  and  encourage  this  somewhat 
tardy  effort  to  husband  the  bounties  which  nature  has  so 
kindly  provided  and  which  we  have  heretofore  so  prodigally 
wasted,  let  me  ask,  how  many  of  you  have  taken  seriously 
to  heart  the  almost  criminally  inexcusable  dissipation  of 
the  created  resources,  the  actual  invested  wealth  of  this 
country,  which  for  each  year,  and  for  many  years  past,  has 
been  absolutely  eliminated  from  the  assets  of  the  nation,  as 
a  needless  sacrifice  to  the  demon  fire? 

Fortunately  nature  may,  and  frequently  does  restore  the 
waste  of  its  values  which  man  permits  or  instigates,  but  when 
man  permits  or  instigates  the  waste  of  acquired  wealth  by 
fire,  it  means  an  absolute  and  irrevocable  destruction  of  so 
much  accumulated  value;  fire  resolves  the  combustible  into 
its  original  elements,  which  man  cannot  re-assemble  into  an 
entity  as  an  evidence  of  his  capacity  for  creating  resources, 
nor  can  he  count  these  intangible  elements  as  part  of  his 
assets,  hence,  he  who  would  retain  that  which  has  been 
accumulated,  must  be  his  own  conservator  and  forfend  the 
day  of  obliteration  of  his  holdings  by  constant  and  unceas¬ 
ing  effort  to  prevent  fire,  and  supplement  such  effort  by  the 
provision  of  reliable  and  ‘efficient  fire  protection. 

In  order  to  impress  upon  your  minds  the  enormity  of  the 
fire  waste  in  this  country,  with  its  accompanying  sacrifice  of 
human  life  and  injury  to  person,  let  me  epitomize  the  statistics 
of  many  years  into  an  average  one  year  period  as  follows : 

During  one  year  (1907)  fire  caused  the  death  of  1,449 
persons  and  the  injury  of  5,654,  according  to  statistics 
gathered  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Each  year  since  shows  an  increasing  loss  of  life  and 
record  of  injuries,  the  human  sacrifice  keeping  pace  with 
increasing  fire  waste. 

Each  year  $250,000,000  of  tangible  value  is  wasted  by 

fire. 

Each  minute  of  each  day  of  the  year  sees  $500  in  value 
rising  in  flame  and  smoke  leaving  an  ash-pile  as  its  pyre. 

Each  year  the  fire  loss  equals  $2.65  per  capita  of  our 
95.000,000  of  population. 


Each  year  this  needless  loss  equals  a  tax  of  $13.00  per 
each  family  of  five  of  our  population. 

Each  year  shows  a  record  of  40  fires  to  each  10,000  of 
our  population. 

This,  gentlemen,  is  a  very  brief  statement ;  there  are  only 
five'  items  in  it,  but  it  serves  to  brand  the  American  people 
as  the  most  prodigally  wasteful  of  all  civilized  communities 
in  relation  to  the  conservation  of  their  acquired  resources. 
When  we  compare  this  shameful  record  with  that  of  the 
nations  of  Continental  Europe  in  respect  to  fire  waste  which 
we  find  as  collated  in  a  report  of  the  United  States  Geologi¬ 
cal  Survey,  covering  statistics  of  six  leading  foreign  countries 
including  cities  having  population  comparable  with  a  like 
number  of  the  leading  cities  of  this  country,  it  is  discovered 
that  only  eight  fires  to  each  10,000  population  take  place  each 
year,  and  that  the  fire  loss  in  the  same  period  is  but  33  cents 
per  capita  in  the  cities,  and  but  48  cents  per  capita  as  a 
general  average  over  all ;  assuredly,  under  these  conditions 
the  American  people  have  no  occasion  to  “point  with  pride” 
to  their  record. 

In  attempting  to  answer  the  natural  inquiry  as  to  the 
cause  of  the  lower  fire  waste  in  foreign  countries  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  experience  with  our  own,  it  may  be  stated 
that  under  the  centralized  forms  of  government  peculiar  to 
these  older  countries,  the  individual  is  held  to  strict  per¬ 
sonal  responsibility  not  only  for  fires  occurring  within  his 
own  property,  but  also  for  any  damage  to  his  neighbors  on 
account  of  fire  which  is  the  result  of  violation  of  law,  or  in 
consequence  of  culpable  carelessness,  and  may  not  recover 
payment  for  loss  until  after  judicial  investigation  has  proven 
him  not  at  fault ;  the  same  conditions  exist  in  relation  to 
the  tenant  in  whose  occupancy  fire  may  take  place. 

In  addition  to  thus  placing  personal  responsibility  upon 
both  the  owner  and  the  tenant,  these  governments  formulate 
and  enforce  wise  building  laws  and  regulate  the  hazards  of 
occupancy  with  such  strictness  that  an  evasion  of  either 
condition  is  almost  unknown,  while  in  this  free  country, 
every  man  assumes  to  be  a  power  in  himself,  having  little 
regard  for  the  rights  of  his  neighbors,  and  generally  con¬ 
struing  the  term  '“liberty”  into  that  of  broad  license  to  do 
as  he  pleases  with  his  own,  with  the  direful  result  evidenced 
in  our  yearly  ash  heap. 

While  it  is  perhaps  beyond  the  bounds  of  hope  to  secure 
in  this  country  as  close  official  supervision  of  the  individual 
as  is  had  abroad,  I  confess  to  a  desire  for  just  that  modicum 
of  paternalism  which  would  serve  to  take  care  of  the  fools, 
guide  the  ignorant,  caution  the  reckless  and  severely  punish 
the  vicious  when  responsible  for  preventable  fires.  Certainly 
if  we  are  to  hope  for  a  reduction  in  our  fire  waste,  it  must 
be  sought  in  making  the  individual  realize  his  personal 


3 


wm 


responsibility  not  only  for  the  proper  care  of  his  own  hold¬ 
ings,  but  also  as  an  obligation  to  his  neighbors  and  for  the 
welfare  of  the  nation  in  the  matter  of  fire  prevention. 

It  is  a  truism  to  state  that  communities  are  formed  by  the 
aggregation  of  individual  units,  but  it  seems  wise  to  impress 
upon  you  a  realization  of  the  fact,  that  if  the  unit  can  be 
brought  into  appreciation  of  its  obligation  to  prevent  fires, 
the  benefit  to  the  community  as  a  whole  will  soon  become 
apparent,  and  herein,  it  appears  to  me,  is  opened  to  you  a 
field  of  education  of  the  unit  both  by  precept  and  example, 
for  the  cultivation  of  which  your  technical  knowledge  so 
exactly  fits  you,  and  I  trust  you  will  appreciate  their  im¬ 
portance  and  grasp  the  opportunity  whenever  and  wherever 
it  may  come  to  you  so  to  do. 

Passing  now  to  the  matters  of  fire  prevention  and  fire 
protection,  I  am  confronted  with  such  a  mass  of  essential 
detail  in  the  proper  consideration  of  each  subject  as  to 
almost  despair  of  being  able  to  convey  to  you  a  proper  con¬ 
ception  of  their  importance  within  the  time  allotted  for  my 
remarks,  but  in  general  may  say  that  FIRE  PREVENTION 
covers  such  a  wide  scope  as  to  compel  special  consideration 
as  to  methods  for  each  plant  as  it  comes  under  observation, 
no  two  being  so  alike  in  their  needs  as  to  permit  generaliza¬ 
tion  relating  to  details,  but  as  the  very  foundation  of  fire 
protection  is  based  upon  the  completeness  and  efficiency  of 
fire  prevention,  this  latter  phase  of  the  question  will  first 
be  given  attention,  and  in  this  relation  it  may  be  said  that 
the  most  important  and  basic  element  in  fire  prevention  is 
included  in  the  term  “shop  management,”  or  in  more  homely 
terms,  “GOOD  PIOUSE-KEEPING,”  which  is  an  essential 
in  fire  prevention  in  every  plant,  whatever  the  nature  of 
its  occupancy,  the  character  of  its  building  construction  or 
the  completeness  of  its  fire  protection. 

Acceptable  practice  in  “GOOD  HOUSE-KEEPING” 
demands  strict  compliance  with  the  following  prime  essentials 
in  fire  prevention: 

First ,  the  enforcement  of  rules  which  will  insure 
cleanliness  throughout  the  plant  as  a  matter  of  daily 
practice,  not  only  as  a  means  by  which  the  possibility  of 
fire  may  be  avoided,  but  as  of  profit. 

(a)  Floor  sweepings ;  greasy  lunch  papers,  oily 
wiping  waste,  paint-rags  and  like  material  subject  to 
spontaneous  ignition,  should  be  deposited  in  “Standard” 
safety  cans  suitable  for  their  reception,  the  contents  of 
which  should  be  safely  disposed  of  each  night,  preferably 
to  be  burned  under  the  boiler. 

Ashes  should  be  kept  only  in  metal  receptacles ; 
should  be  removed  from  building  each  night  and  not  be 
deposited  in  contact  with  combustible  structures  or 
material. 


4 


(b)  Working  men’s  clothes  and  overalls,  when  not 
in  use  should  be  kept  in  ventilated  metal  closets  or  lock¬ 
ers  not  in  contact  with  readily  combustible  material. 

(c)  Oily  metal  turnings  or  filings  should  not  be 
permitted  to  accumulate  on  wooden  floors  or  be  held  in 
combustible  receptacles,  nor  should  they  be  mixed  with 
combustible  materials. 

(d)  All  combustible  process  waste  and  other  refuse 
should  be  carefully  disposed  of  by  removal  from  the 
buildings  at  the  close  of  each  day’s  work,  and  be  safely 
deposited  in  locations  not  endangering  the  plant  in  case 
of  ignition  of  such  refuse. 

(e)  Time  should  be  allotted  to  operatives  for  clean¬ 
ing  machinery  and  disposing  of  oily  wiping  waste,  and 
for  the  removal  of  combustible  waste  material  prior  to 
hour  of  closing  shop  for  the  day. 

(/)  All  volatile  and  inflammable  fluids  should  be 
kept  in  and  used  from  “Standard”  safety  cans ;  not  in 
excess  of  one  day’s  supply  of  such  should  be  kept  inside 
of  building  at  any  time,  and  all  unused  portions  should 
be  removed  to  a  place  of  safety  outside  of  the  plant  at 
the  close  of  the  day’s  work. 

(g)  Heating  systems  should  be  installed  in  a  safe 
manner  and  be  kept  in  good  condition ;  steam  pipes 
should  not  be  in  contact  with  woodwork  or  other  com¬ 
bustibles  ;  hot  air  pipes  or  other  heat  conveying  or 
producing  devices  should  be  carefully  arranged  to  pre¬ 
vent  overheating:  or  imiition  of  combustibles. 

(h)  Open  lights  or  flame  of  any  character  should 
be  maintained  in  such  position  as  to  avoid  ignition  of 
combustibles ;  gas  brackets  should  always  be  of  the 
rigid  pattern,  preventing  swinging. 

(i)  Open  lights  or  flame  of  any  character  should 
never  be  permitted  for  use  in  the  presence  of  inflammable 
or  volatile  materials,  or  where  inflammable  dust  is  liable 
to  be  present ;  incandescent  electric  lights  in  such  local¬ 
ities  should  be  vapor-proof  and  of  the  keyless  socket 
pattern  and  enclosed  in  wire  guards,  with  operating 
switch  located  in  an  apartment  separated  from  the 
inflammables. 

(/)  The  use  of  so-called  “Parlor  Matches”  or  their 
equivalent  should  be  strictly  prohibited  in  all  parts  of 
the  plant.  If  matches  must  be  used,  only  those  lighting 
on  the  prepared  surface  of  the  containing  box  or  recep¬ 
tacle  should  be  permitted. 

(k)  The  use  of  the  incandescent  electric  current 
for  lighting  is  the  safest  means  of  illumination,  when 
the  equipment  is  installed  in  strict  conformity  with  the 
“National  Electrical  Code”  and  its  integrity  insured  by 
proper  supervision  of  the  equipment. 


5 


(/)  All  specially  hazardous  and  dangerous  processes 
or  devices  which  may  serve  -  to  cause  or  promote  fire, 
should,  where  possible,  be  carefully  segregated  and  prop¬ 
erly  separated  from  communication  with  the  plant  in 
general,  and  also  receive  special  consideration  in  relation 
to  fire  extinguishing  appliances. 

(in)  Watchman’s  service  should  be  maintained  at 
all  times  when  the  plant  is  not  in  operation,  and  the 
record  of  service  be  shown  on  such  mechanical  device 
as  will  not  permit  evasion  of  duty ;  records  should  be 
examined  and  checked  over,  filed  and  dated  each  day. 

(n)  Discipline  should  be  enforced  and  system  be 
maintained  by  holding  shop  foreman  or  floor  boss  strictly 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  established  condi¬ 
tions,  a  written  report  covering  these  matters  to  be  filed 
with  manager  each  day. 

In  order  to  be  assured  of  the  best  results  from  the  care¬ 
ful  observance  of  these  “Good  House-keeping”  rules,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  consideration  to  the  matter  of  building 
construction,  as  the  measure  of  efficiency  in  both  fire  pre¬ 
vention  and  fire  protection  is  largely  affected  by  the  character 
of  the  structure,  it  being  evident  that  a  fire  resistive  build¬ 
ing,  having  open  and  smooth  interior  surfaces,  without  con¬ 
cealed  spaces  and  with  the  minimum  of  combustible  material 
in  construction  and  interior  fittings,  would  call  for  a  less 
elaborate  system  of  fire  protection  and  present  smaller  op¬ 
portunity  for  dangerous  accumulations  than  would  be  the 
case  where,  as  in  ordinary  joist  or  light  construction,  the 
whole  interior  is  readily  combustible,  hence,  assuming  to 
roughly  outline  the  essentials  which  should  have  considera¬ 
tion  in  designing  a  factory  plant,  the  following  suggestions 
are  presented : 

(a)  Wherever  possible,  fire  resistive  material  should 
be  used  in  construction,  avoiding  combustible  floors, 
roofs  and  roof  houses,  interior  trim  and  fittings. 

( b )  Avoid  “pockets”  or  concealed  spaces  in  floors 
and  walls,  which  serve  to  collect  and  harbor  shop  refuse, 
waste,  etc. 

(c)  Separation  of  areas  into  the  smallest  units 
practicable  for  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  assigned ; 
divisions  between  sections  to  be  formed  by  standard  fire¬ 
walls  having  only  such  openings  as  may  not  be  avoided, 
each  of  which  should  be  protected  by  “Standard”  auto¬ 
matic  fire  doors  on  each  side  of  the  separating  fire-wall. 

(d)  All  openings  in  side  walls  at  the  angles  of 
adjoining  sections  and  toward  all  exposing  structures  or 
accumulations  of  combustibles  should  be  protected  with 
“Standard”  fire  shutters,  or,  where  the  exposure  is  not 
serious,  by  wired  glass  in  “Standard”  metal  frames ;  the 


absence  of  proper  protection  at  such  openings  facilitates 
the  lateral  spread  of  flame  and  thus  promotes  conflagra¬ 
tion. 

(c)  Vertical  openings  through  floors  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  form  channels  for  spread  of  flame  from 
floor  to  floor  with  almost  incredible  rapidity,  and  present 
one  of  the  most  dangerous  features  to  be  found  in 
modern  construction  from  a  fire,  prevention  viewpoint. 

(/)  Elevators,  stairways,  belt  and  rope  drive  race¬ 
ways,  should  be  separated  and  enclosed  in  brick  or  fire 
resistive  shafts,  having  “Standard”  fireproof  automatic 
doors  at  all  openings  to  plant. 

(g)  Fire  escapes  should  be  constructed  with  fire¬ 
proof  stairways,  enclosed  in  brick  or  fire  resistive  shafts 
rising  above  roof,  with  outside  balconies  having*  doors 
swinging  outward  from  building  and  inward  from  bal¬ 
cony  to  stairway  escape ;  no  openings  from  shaft  to  the 
building  to  be  permitted. 

While  under  the  present  advanced  state  of  the  art  of 
building  construction  there  would  seem  to  be  no  valid  ob¬ 
jection  to  demanding  conformity  to  the  suggestions  above 
laid  down  in  relation  to  new  plants,  it  is  probable  that  there 
will  come  under  your  supervision  changes  in  the  design  of 
plants  already  established  and  located  in  buildings  of  less 
desirable  construction,  and  in  such  cases  it  will  become  neces¬ 
sary  to  so  change  the  conditions  affecting  the  fire  hazard 
and  “good  house-keeping”  as  to  bring  them  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  this  higher  standard,  and  this  may  frequently  be 
accomplished  at  moderate  expense.  Reference  to  the  Na¬ 
tional  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  pamphlet  covering  “Uni¬ 
form  Requirements”  relating  to  building  construction,  will 
doubtless  prove  of  value  in  such  instances. 

Again  treating  of  building  construction  in  its  broad 
sense,  it  may  be  well  to  attempt  a  short  classification  of 
various  types  of  buildings  in  relation  to  their  adaptability 
to  best  promote  success  in  the  efforts  toward  fire  prevention 
and  fire  protection  herein  suggested : 

First,  may  be  considered  standard  fire  resistive  or 
the  so-called  fireproof  construction  which  presents  no 
easily  ignitable  surfaces,  and  should  when  properly  con¬ 
structed  show  no  avoidable  features  which  might  serve 
to  obstruct  the  fire  protective  devices. 

The  higher  first  cost  of  this  class  of  construction  is 
thoroughly  justified  through  the  fact  that  its  term  of  life 
is  practically  unlimited,  and  the  probable  depreciation 
somewhere  about  one-ninth  of  one  per  cent,  per  annum. 

The  question  as  to  which  of  two  classes  of  fire 
resistive  construction  is  the  better  lies  between  the  steel 
frame  skeleton  enclosed  with  fireproof  tile  and  that 
which  is  enclosed  with  reinforced  concrete.  In  my  judg- 


7 


ment,  there  is  little  to  be  said  in  favor  of  one  over  the 
other  except  from  the  fact  that  in  reinforced  concrete 
construction,  it  is  an  evidenced  necessity  to  have  expert 
control  from  the  selection  of  the  cement  through  all  the 
processes  until  the  concrete  is  set  in  its  moulds,  and  this 
result  is  not  easily  obtainable  with  the  ordinary  class  of 
employees  available  in  construction. 

Second,  “Mill”  or  slow  burning  construction  carries 
with  it  many  features  which  are  desirable  in  relation  to 
the  ready  extinguishment  of  fire  from  the  fact  that  while 
all  of  its  interior  construction  may  be  combustible,  the 
heavy  plank  floors  and  their  supporting  timbers  offer  no 
hidden  spaces,  nor  are  they  readily  attacked  by  flame. 
The  cost  of  this  class  of  construction  over  that  of  or¬ 
dinary  construction  is  justifiable  by  the  fact  that  its  lease 
of  life  is  superior,  and  the  cost  of  its  up-keep  is  very 
small. 

Third,  ordinary  or  so-called  joist  construction  is  par¬ 
ticularly  objectionable  from  the  fact  that  it  presents  the 
largest  exposed  area  subject  to  ready  ignition,  and  offers 
the  most  difficult  problems  in  relation  to  fire  prevention 
and  fire  protection.  Its  low  cost  is  very  materially  offset 
by  the  expensive  up-keep  and  the  high  rate  of  deprecia¬ 
tion  to  which  it  is  subject,  ranging  from  4  to  A]/2%  per 
annum.  It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that  under  the  present 
condition  of  advanced  ideas  in  building*  construction,  the 
designer  of  new  manufacturing  plants  should  strenuously 
avoid  the  consideration  of  the  ordinary  or  light  joisted 
type  of  construction. 

At  this  point  it  seems  wise  to  make  reference  to  the 
National  Board  Building  Code  which  has  been  prepared 
under  the  advice  and  counsel  of  eminent  architects  and  en¬ 
gineers  throughout  the  country,  and  presents  information 
which  will  prove  of  large  value  to  all  who  may  seek  to  secure 
the  result  of  a  concerted  effort  to  regulate  the  construction 
of  buildings  throughout  the  country  which  will  best  serve 
to  reduce  the  fire  hazard. 

In  attempting*  to  specifically  designate  the  nature  or  char¬ 
acter  of  fire  extinguishing  appliances  best  fitted  for  use  in 
any  manufacturing  plant,  we  are  confronted  with  condi¬ 
tions  in  relation  to  the  character  of  building  construction 
and  the  nature  of  its  occupancy  which  may  serve  to  influence, 
if  not  to  indicate,  the  selection  of  the  class  of  apparatus 
which  will  presumably  best  control  the  given  situation 
The  choice  of  appliances  for  the  purpose  covers  a 
wide  range,  measuring  in  efficiency  from  the  humble  cask 
and  pail  of  water  up  to  and  including  chemical  extinguish¬ 
ers,  stand-pipes  and  hose,  fire  pumps  and  hydrants  under 
private  control  and  water  supply,  and  to  be  further  extended 
to  the  full  paid  and  organized  fire  department  under  munic¬ 
ipal  control,  but  as  the  efficiency  of  each  of  these  devices  and 


C 


8 


methods  depends  on  the  unreliable  factor  of  the  human 
element  to  be  on  hand  and  to  intelligently  handle  them  in 
emergency,  experience  has  taught  us  that  only  when  in  the 
hands  of  skilled  firemen  may  there  be  hope  of  satisfactory 
results  in  the  use  of  these  devices,  and  while  cheerfully  ad¬ 
mitting  their  value  as  auxiliary  means  of  fire  extinction,  I 
desire  to  call  your  attention  to  a  method  or  system  of  fire 
extinguishment  which  is  neither  controlled  or  influenced  by 
the  uncertainty  of  the  human  element,  a  device  and  system 
which  is  always  and  automatically  prepared  to  put  out  a  fire 
at  the  point  and  at  the  time  of  its  occurrence,  responding  in¬ 
stantly  to  the  extinguishment  of  the  flame,  the  heat  from 
which  sets  it  in  operation,  and  which  is  suitable  for  effective 
service  in  practically  any  class  of  structure  and  under  any 
condition  of  possible  fire  hazard. 

This  device  is  known  as  THE  AUTOMATIC  SPRINK¬ 
LER,  and  it  has  reached  its  present  position  of  depend¬ 
ability  as  a  fire  extinguishing  appliance  through  long  years 
of  study  and  experiment,  the  records  showing  that  as  far 
back  as  the  year  1809  and  again  in  the  year  1812,  patents 
were  granted  in  England  to  Sir  William  Congreve,  M.  P., 
for  “an  apparatus  for  extinguishing  fires  which  shall  be 
called  into  action  by  the  fire  itself  at  its  first  breaking  out, 
and  which  shall  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  precise  part 
where  the  flames  exist” ;  while  the  automatic  operation  of 
this  ancient  device  depended  upon  the  burning  of  a  cord  to 
release  a  weighted  valve  which  was  normally  closed,  the 
wording  of  the  claim  is  nearly  broad  enough  to  cover  the 
more  perfected  device  of  the  present  day  equipment,  and  had 
this  far  sighted  conception  been  supplemented  by  half  as 
much  energy  in  commercially  forwarding  the  introduction 
and  use  of  the  device  at  that  time  as  has  been  the  case  with 
similar  apparatus  during  the  past  thirty  years  in  this  coun¬ 
try,  the  saving  of  human  lives  and  the  preservation  of  prop¬ 
erty  values  from  the  ravages  of  fire  incident  to  its  use  would 
have  established  a  record  astounding  in  its  proportions,  and 
highly  creditable  to  progressive  civilization. 

While  the  desire  to  secure  means  of  automatically  con¬ 
trolling  the  spread  of  fire  prompted  many  inventive  minds  to 
undertake  the  task  after  the  death  of  the  Congreve  concep¬ 
tion,  nothing  of  public  interest  seems  to  have  occurred  until 
about  1852,  when  a  system  of  perforated  iron  pipes  was 
introduced  for  fire  protection  in  some  eastern  cotton  mills, 
the  operation  of  which  depended  upon  the  opening  of  a  valve 
at  the  outbreak  of  a  fire,  thus  calling  in  the  human  element 
with  all  of  its  uncertainties  as  the  actuating  power,  and  while 
this  class  of  extinguisher  did  some  good  service  between 
the  date  of  its  inception  up  to  about  the  year  1875,  the  dam¬ 
age  from  the  widespread  distribution  of  water  beyond  the 
exact  seat  of  the  flame  proved  to  be  as  disastrous  as  that 
caused  by  the  fire  itself,  and  the  perforated  pipe  was  re- 


9 


placed  by  a  series  of  individual  sprinkler  heads  each  having 
a  cap  attached  to  its  extremity  and  held  in  place  by  a  fusible 
metal  solder  of  such  composition  as  to  fuse  at  a  fixed  tem¬ 
perature,  thus  releasing  the  cap  and  permitting  the  flow  of  the 
water;  this  was  the  invention  of  Henry  S.  Parmelee,  a  noted 
engineer  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and  the  first  record  of  a 
fire  being  extinguished  by  this  device  dates  back  to  February 
12th,  1877,  when  the  property  of  the  American  Linen  Mills, 
at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  was  saved  from  destruction  through 
the  operation  of  the  Parmelee  sprinkler  head. 

Following  this  demonstration  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
Parmelee  automatic  sprinkler  as  a  fire  extinguisher,  the  use 
of  the  device  gradually  extended,  and  the  experience  gained 
in  the  operation  of  same  at  a  number  of  fires  demonstrated 
that  they  were  somewhat  slow  in  action,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  fusible  cap  was  in  contact  with  the  water  of  the 
system  at  all  times,  thus  necessitating  longer  exposure  to 
the  action  of  heat  to  insure  melting  of  the  alloy  and  retard¬ 
ing  the  operation  of  the  device;  realizing  the  seriousness  of 
this  defect  in  the  water-joint  head,  and  using  the  Parmelee 
idea  as  a  base,  many  attempts  were  made  to  produce  a  head 
or  valve  in  which  the  fusible  solder  would  be  removed  from 
water  contact  and  yet  permit  the  use  of  a  seal  to  the  outlet 
which  would  be  water  tight  through  the  mechanical  device 
of  struts  which  would  hold  it  in  place  until  released  by 
melting  of  the  solder  joint;  many  of  these  devices  proved 
to  be  impracticable  and  unreliable  in  service  and  have  passed 
into  oblivion,  but  there  still  remains  a  number  of  these  de¬ 
vices  which  have  stood  the  test  of  time  and  have  been  per¬ 
fected  to  such  a  degree  of  reliability  and  efficiency  as  to 
have  become  recognized  standards,  and  of  these  it  affords 
me  great  pleasure  to  be  able,  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
several  manufacturers,  to  present  for  your  examination  and 
study  a  full  set  of  each  of  the  various  types  of  automatic 
sprinklers  which  are  now  accepted  as  satisfactory  under  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under¬ 
writers,  and  for  the  presence  of  which,  when  properly  in¬ 
stalled,  large  rate  concessions  are  usually  granted. 

In  explaining  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  automatic 
sprinkler,  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  while  in  the  exhibit 
before  you  each  of  the  various  types  shows  differences  in 
general  design  and  in  the  location  of  the  fusible  joint,  as  well 
as  in  its  form,  the  principle  upon  which  each  of  these  devices 
operates  is  identical,  in  that  by  the  melting  of  the  soldered 
joint  which  holds  together  the  several  parts  of  the  strut  or 
lever  supporting  the  seal  to  the  outlet  of  the  valve  or  head, 
this  supporting  device  falls  apart,  and  the  pressure  of  water 
forces  the  seal  out  of  its  place,  and  striking  the  distributing- 
plate  the  water  is  sprayed  over  a  floor  space  the  diameter 
of  which  is  proportionate  to  the  height  of  the  sprinkler  head 
above  the  floor,  and  its  volume  is  controlled  by  the  head  in 


10 


feet  or  pressure  in  pounds  at  which  the  water  is  supplied  at 
the  outlet  of  the  device,  ranging  from  12  gallons  per  minute 
at  5  pounds  pressure  up  to  58  gallons  per  minute  at  100 
pounds  pressure,  through  the  standard  open  waterway  of 
one-half  inch  diameter  common  to  each  of  these  devices. 

In  each  case  the  composition  of  the  fusible  alloy  used  is 
standardized  to  insure  its  melting  and  the  separation  of  the 
parts  which  hold  the  water  seal  in  place  at  fixed  tempera¬ 
tures  suited  to  varying  conditions ;  in  this  exhibit,  the  head 
without  color  other  than  that  of  its  composition,  indicates 
the  normal  or  “regular”  fusible  joint,  which  is  intended  to 
release  at  a  temperature  of  approximately  160°  Fahrenheit, 
the 'variations  from  this  basis  being  indicated  by  the  coloring 
of  the  sprinkler  head,  the  white  coated  sprinkler  indicating 
a  melting  or  releasing  temperature  of  212,  blue  that  of  286 
and  red  that  of  360°  Fahrenheit  respectively,  thus  enabling 
the  inspector  to  decide  on  sight  the  appropriateness  of  the 
equipment  in  specially  heated  localities ;  the  head,  nearly 
black  in  color,  is  specially  prepared  with  a  composition  called 
“coro-proof”  which  is  intended  to  prevent  corrosion  of  the 
parts  due  to  the  presence  of  acids  or  other  corrosive  elements 
in  the  factory,  the  melting  point  of  this  composition  being 
such  that  its  use  is  practically  restricted  to  locations  in  which 
the  temperature  does  not  largely  exceed  that  of  160°  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  “regular”  fusible  joint. 

In  each  of  these  devices  the  composition  of  the  metal 
forming  its  body  and  other  exposed  parts  is  of  such  nature 
as  to  prevent  oxidation,  while  the  material  composing  the 
water  seal  of  the  valve  is  of  various  composition,  but  in  each 
case,  likewise  non-corrodible,  and  at  the  same  time  of  such 
character  as  to  prevent  adherence  at  its  seat  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  continued  pressure. 

In  addition  to  these  devices  which  are  designed  to  operate 
automatically  at  a  given  rise  of  temperature  caused  by  fire 
inside  of  a  structure,  we  also  have  here  specimens  of  approved 
devices  for  use  in  protecting  structures  from  attack  by  flames 
originating  in  other  and  exposing  structures  by  the  delivery 
of  a  volume  of  water  against  the  outside  walls,  upon  the 
cornice  and  over  the  fronts  of  the  windows  of  the  building 
to  be  protected,  thus  forming  a  water-curtain  as  a  stop  to 
the  entrance  of  flame  from  the  burning  exposure.  These 
devices  are  known  as  “open  sprinklers,”  and  having  no  seal 
at  the  valve  outlet,  they  are  not  automatic  in  action,  but 
depend  upon  the  human  element  to  render  them  effective  by 
the  operation  of  opening  a  valve  at  the  base  of  the  riser 
through  which  water  is  to  be  conveyed  to  the  distributer,  but 
even  with  this  disadvantage,  the  open  sprinkler  has  so  often 
proven  its  worth  as  a  reliable  fire-stop  as  to  warrant  its 
introduction  as  a  means  of  protection  against  exposure  fires 
whenever  it  is  possible  to  secure  installation  of  such  an 
equipment. 


8 


11 


It  may  also  be  noted  that  the  only  difference  between  the 
open  sprinkler  used  for  wall  and  window  protection,  and 
that  designed  for  application  to  cornices,  lies  in  the  shape 
of  the  water  distributing  table  or  plate,  the  design  in  each 
instance  being  that  which  has  given  the  best  results  in  actual 
practice  at  fires. 

In  concluding  this  description  and  exhibit  of  approved 
automatic  sprinklers,  it  is  well  to  relieve  the  minds  of  those 
who  fear  the  happening  of  large  water  damage  through  the 
leakage  of  these  devices  under  normal  conditions  of  tem¬ 
perature,  or  from  excess  pressure ;  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
minimum  pressure  at  which  a  leak  is  excusable,  is  fixed  at 
250  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  the  temperature  at  which 
the  fusible  link  may  melt  is  held  at  160'  in  order  to  secure 
compliance  with  the  National  Board  rules  before  approval 
of  the  device,  and  the  record  shows  so  few  failures  in  these 
respects  as  to  place  the  matter  outside  of  serious  considera¬ 
tion  as  an  objection  to  the  introduction  of  the  automatic 
sprinkler  as  a  means  of  certain  and  reliable  protection. 

Trusting  that  I  may  have  made  plain  to  you  the  details 
of  construction  and  the  intended  operation  of  the  automatic 
sprinkler,  permit  me  to  present  a  short  statement  of  what,  in 
actual  experience,  this  very  valuable  extinguishing  device 
has  accomplished  in  putting  out  fires  in  practically  all  classes 
of  structures,  with  almost  any  conceivable  hazard  of  occu¬ 
pancy,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  world  since  the  device  has 
reached  that  stage  of  perfection  which  has  enabled  its  use 
to  make  the  record : 

From  figures  compiled  by  the  General  Fire  Extinguisher 
Company  it  is  shown  that  before  the  more  general  introduc¬ 
tion  of  automatic  sprinklers  in  factories,  the  average  cost 
per  fire  was  $7,361,  while  under  automatic  sprinkler  protec¬ 
tion  the  average  cost  per  fire  in  13,476  cases  covered  by  their 
records,  amounted  to  but  $277.26  each. 

Supplementing  this,  the  record  of  Sprinklered  risks  fires 
compiled  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association,  cov¬ 
ering  a  period  of  some  14  years,  shows  that  of  10,171  fires 
listed,  64.25%  were  entirely  extinguished  by  the  action  of 
the  sprinklers ;  that  30.59%  were  held  in  check  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  permit  extinguishment  by  other  means,  thus 
presenting  a  grand  total  of  94.84%  to  the  credit  of  the 
automatic  sprinklers  for  successful  operation  in  holding  in 
check  or  totally  extinguishing  fires;  the  remaining  5.16% 
of  the  whole  representing  unsatisfactory  operation  of  the 
device,  the  failures  of  which  was  caused  either  by  a  lack 
of  proper  water  supply,  serious  defects  in  the  equipment,  or 
on  account  of  the  equipment  being  rendered  inoperative 
through  the  cutting  off  of  its  water  supply,  accidentally,  care¬ 
lessly,  or  otherwise. 


12 


It  may  be  of  further  interest  to  state  from  these  records 
of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association,  that  4 7.66% 
of  these  equipments  secured  their  primary  supply  from  pub¬ 
lic  water  service;  34.71%  were  supplied  from  gravity  tanks; 
14.38%  operated  under  pressure  tank  supply';  6.19%  were 
supplied  by  automatic  steam  fire  pumps ;  automatically 
operated  electric  pumps  and  connections  from  public  fire 
department  steamers  each  served  as  primary  supply  to  the 
extent  of  .01%. 

Remarkable  as  is  this  record  of  success  in  controlling 
fire  through  the  action  of  automatic  sprinklers,  it  must  not 
be  assumed  that  there  is  no  limitation  to  their  power  of 
accomplishment  in  fire  extinguishment,  as  a  reference  to  the 
figures  above  given  will  show  that  something  over  30% 
of  the  fires  were  simply  held  in  check  by  the  sprinklers  until 
other  means  of  fighting  the  fire  could  be  utilized,  and  this 
fact  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  always  being  prepared  for 
any- untoward  condition  of  the  automatic  equipment,  by  pro¬ 
viding  auxiliary  means  to  control  the  flame  when  from  any 
cause  the  sprinklers  fail  to  completely  extinguish  it,  for  even 
with  a  perfectly  satisfactory  installation,  we  are  often  con¬ 
fronted  with  conditions  due  to  accident  or  carelessness,  which, 
for  a  time  at  least,  may  entirely  or  partially  disable  the  equip¬ 
ment  after  it  has  gone  into  operation. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  you  have  at  your  command  copies 
of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters’  rules  and  re¬ 
quirements  covering  the  installation  and  equipment  of  an 
automatic  sprinkler  system,  I  will  not  burden  you  by  a 
repetition  of  those  rules,  but  will  content  myself  by  assuring 
you  that  when  such  equipment  has  been  installed  in  con¬ 
formity  with  the  rules  and  requirements,  and  is  kept  in  ser¬ 
viceable  condition  by  proper  supervision  and  care,  the  chance 
for  its  failure  to  promptly  extinguish  any  fire  in  its  incipiency 
is  extremely  rare,  almost  improbable ;  indeed,  with  proper 
water  supply  under  necessary  pressure  behind  the  automatic 
sprinkler  in  almost  any  conceivable  locality  where  the 
delivery  of  its  spray  is  unobstructed,  it  will  vindicate  its  past 
record  as  the  most  efficient  fire  fighting  device  ever  con¬ 
ceived  by  the  human  mind ;  it  is  always  in  the  right  place  at 
the  right  time,  ready  for  any  emergency  and  promptly  per¬ 
forms  its  allotted  function  without  dependence  upon  human 
aid  or  direction  in  its  accomplishment. 

I  cannot  dismiss  consideration  of  the  value  of  the  auto¬ 
matic  sprinkler  as  being  compassed  by  its  utilitarian  qualifica¬ 
tions  as  a  fire  extinguisher,  but  must  call  your  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  also  a  very  potent  element  in  the  matter 
of  saving  life  at  the  time  of  fire,  as  the  promptness  with 
which  it  acts  in  the  delivery  of  water  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  likewise  serves  as  an  alarm  to  the  occupants  of  the 


13 


threatened  structures,  thus  admonishing  them  to  seek  safety 
in  due  time,  while  they  are  at  the  same  moment  under  a 
drenching  •  shower  from  the  sprinkler  which  will  prevent 
ignition  of  their  garments,  or  extinguish  the  flame  if  already 
in  evidence. 

I  am  thoroughly  convinced,  as  are  all  who  are  familiar 
with  the  operation  of  the  automatic  sprinkler,  that  if  the 
premises  of  the  Triangle  Waist  Factory,  which  recently 
burned  in  this  city,  had  been  under  such  protection,  there 
could  not  have  been  such  terrible  loss  of  life,  even  as  the 
result  of  wild  panic,  and  that  it  is  more  than  probable  that 
the  fire  would  have  been  completely  extinguished  at  its 
incipiency  and  without  serious  loss  of  property. 

Before  giving  attention  to  the  class  or  specific  character 
of  fire  extinguishing  devices  which  are  now  generally  ac¬ 
ceptable  for  that  purpose,  it  is  perhaps  well  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  as  a  means  of  fire  extinguishment  no  agent 
has  been  discovered  which  can  replace  water  under  pressure, 
and  commonplace  as  is  this  knowledge,  few  of  those  who 
plan  to  use  this  agent  seem  to  realize  the  fact  that  the  force 
or  pressure  which  serves  to  carry  a  stream  to  burning  mate¬ 
rial  is  only  of  value  when,  in  addition  to  this  carrying  power 
it  includes  sufficient  volume  to  completely  drown  out  com¬ 
bustion,  by  cutting  off  the  supply  of  oxygen  and  cooling 
down  the  temperature  of  the  burning  material  to  a  point 
below  that  at  which  it  will  normally  ignite ;  force  or  power 
alone  is  of  little  value  in  a  fire  stream,  hence,  in  planning  a 
“layout”  for  fire  protection,  the  first  consideration  should 
be  given  to  securing  a  reliable  and  abundant  water  supply, 
and  then  to  so  design  the  equipment  as  to  provide  for  the 
most  effective  pressure  to  insure  the  delivery  of  the.  required 
volume  when  and  where  needed. 

In  giving  proper  consideration  to  this  matter  of  volume 
to  be  delivered,  it  is  necessary  to  recall  to  your  minds  the 
fact  that  the  loss  of  head  due  to  friction  in  service  pipes 
varies  as  the  two-and-a-half  power  of  the  velocity ;  that 
doubling  the  diameter  of  the  main  quadruples  its  delivery 
capacity,  and  that  a  main  which  is  supplied  two  ways  or 
from  both  ends,  has  double  the  delivery  capacity  of  one  of 
like  size  when  fed  one  way  only;  hence,  it  becomes  evident 
that  in  order  to  secure  the  most  reliable  service,  the  water 
mains  in  any  scheme  and  whatever  the  source  of  supply, 
should  be  laid  in  complete  circuit  and  be  of  sufficient  size 
to  provide  volume  under  such  head  or  pressure  as  will  insure 
the  delivery  of  full  fire  streams  at  each  outlet  in  service, 
with  a  loss  of  head  not  in  excess  of  10  to  12  pounds  below 
the  normal  pressure. 

A  “standard  fire  stream”  demands  the  delivery  of  not  less 
than  250  gallons  of  water  per  minute  through  a  \  l/%"  smooth 
bore  nozzle  and  to  secure  this  volume  it  requires  a  pressure 


14 


of  not  less  than  45  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  the  base  of 
the  nozzle,  which  will  give  approximately  a  reach  of  63  feet 
horizontally  and  about  70  feet  vertically.* 

In  considering  the  relative  value  of  water  supplies  for 
fire  extinguishing  purposes,  it  is  evident  that  a  well  designed 
public  gravity  system,  having  ample  supply  and  pressure, 
should  lead  the  list,  but  in  the  matter  of  supply  for  manu¬ 
facturing  plants  remote  from  public  service,  the  problem 
becomes  one  for  special  consideration  in  each  case,  with  its 
solution  dependent  upon  local  conditions  as  to  the  source 
of  supply  and  the  means  by  which  same  may  be  best  utilized, 
the  essential  point  in  any  case  being  assurance  of  sufficient 
volume  and  reliability  as  to  the  continuance  of  supply  under 
emergency  demands ;  the  quantity  available  at  isolated  plants 
should  always  be  sufficient  to  fully  serve  all  appliances  for 
defence  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  one  hour  of  continuous 
operation. 

Private  reservoirs  of  sufficient  capacity  and  at  an  eleva¬ 
tion  to  insure  adequate  pressure  for  fire  service  throughout 
the  system  would  prove  the  most  acceptable,  but  are  difficult 
to  secure  and  of  infrequent  occurrence. 

An  underground  tank  or  cistern,  or  similar  container 
above  ground,  when  of  suitable  capacity  and  with  means  of 
replenishment,  is  a  fairly  satisfactory  source  of  supply  for 
use  with  steam  or  other  power-driven  pumps,  when  the  lift 
is  not  in  excess  of  twelve  feet. 

A  rotary  water  power  pump  may  take  both  its  energy  and 
supply  from  the  head  at  the  dam,  if  the  supply  is  sufficient, 
but  this  class  of  pump  is  not  always  reliable  for  fire  pro¬ 
tection. 

Elevated  tanks  of  the  ordinary  class  and  at  customary 
elevations  and  capacity,  are  of  small  value  for  fire  streams 
from  either  the  stand-pipes  or  from  yard  hydrants. 

The  question  of  economy  as  a  result  of  the  uninterrupted 
operation  of  a  plant  being  one'  of  decided  importance  in  plant 
design,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  enforced  stoppage 
of  work  caused  by  the  occurrence  of  fire  would  be  materially 
mitigated,  if  in  advance  of  that  misfortune  proper  precau¬ 
tion  were  taken  to  provide  adequate  and  reliable  means  of 
fire  protection  to  supplement  the  other  essentials  of  good 
housekeeping-  and  safe  construction,  and  while  it  is  undoubt¬ 
edly  true  that  the  most  reliable  class  of  protection  is  to  be 
found  in  the  presence  of  automatic  sprinklers,  there  are 
other  devices  and  appliances  which  will  serve  good  purpose 
in  fire  extinguishment  when  used  with  intelligence  and  judg¬ 
ment  in  that  emergency,  but  in  order  to  secure  from  such 
devices  the  most  satisfactory  measure  of  efficiency  in  the 
time  of  need,  it  is  necessary  that  both  owners  and  employees 
in  every  manufacturing  plant  should  become  familiarized 


*  The  horizontal  and  vertical  distances  given  are  from  experiments  by 
Mr.  John  R.  Freeman,  Transactions,  Am.  Soc.  C.  F.,  Vol.  XXI. 


15 


with  the  appliances  provided  for  fire  fighting,  and  that  a 
selected  few  of  the  most  apt  and  intelligent  of  the  force  be 
formed  into  a  fire  brigade  which  should  be  drilled  in  the 
use  of  the  appliances  with  such  frequency  and  method  as  to 
render  them  a  reliable  force  for  the  protection  of  the  plant 
when  fire  occurs,  and  this  result  may  best  be  accomplished 
by  assigning  to  each  member  his  appropriate  position  and 
duty  in  service  when  called  upon  for  action,  as  will  be  found 
more  fully  detailed  in  the  National  Board  pamphlet  covering 
the  formation  of  private  fire  brigades,  copies  of  which  are 
now  in  your  possession. 

Let  me  here  utter  a  caution  as  to  over-confidence  in  the 
matter  of  the  efficiency  of  any  private  fire  prevention  equip¬ 
ment,  however  complete  may  be  the  appliances,  or  however 
well  disciplined  the  fire  brigade;  in  every  case,  upon  the 
discovery  of  a  fire,  first  call  the  public  fire  department,  and 
then  make  the  most  prompt  and  intelligent  use  of  the  private 
appliances  at  command,  thus  insuring  the  concentration  of 
all  available  means  to  conquer  the  flame,  before  it  reaches 
proportions  which  may  render  it  uncontrolable  by  any  effort. 

In  giving  consideration  to  appliances  and  devices  now  in 
common  use  for  fire  protection  and  not  automatic  in  opera¬ 
tion,  time  will  not  permit  the  detailed  description  which  it 
is  properly  entitled  to,  and  in  this  respect  you  are  again 
referred  to  the  pamphlets  issued  by  the  National  Board,  in 
which  rules  and  requirements  are  set  forth  as  to  the  con¬ 
struction  and  proper  use  of  these  manually  operated  appli¬ 
ances,  which  may  be1  briefly  considered  as  follows : 

Casks  and  Pails. — When  properly  located  and  supplied 
with  water,  these  devices  are  of  great  value  in  the  early 
stages  of  a  fire,  and  if  intelligently  used,  frequently  pre¬ 
vent  serious  loss. 

Chemical  Extinguishers. — Like  fire  pails,  these  devices 
are  of  decided  value  when  available,  and  have  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  enabling  the  operator  to  direct  an  efficient 
stream  immediately  upon  the  seat  of  combustion  up  to 
a  distance  of  about  40  feet. 

Vertical  Pipes  (Stand  pipes). — When  located  in  ac¬ 
cessible  positions  and  under  proper  head  or  pressure, 
with  hose  and  nozzle  attached,  serve  well  in  the  control 
of  more  advanced  fires,  provided  the  operator  retains 
control  of  his  faculties  sufficiently  to  “stay  by”  the  ap¬ 
pliance  and  intelligently  direct  the  stream  delivered. 

No  stand  pipe  less  than  three  inches  in  diameter  should 
be  installed ;  having  this  diameter,  it  will  supply  two 
streams  through  two-inch  hose  with  nozzles  of  Ls  or 
24-inch  diameter,  and  four  streams  with  same  sized  noz¬ 
zles,  through  1  ^4-inch  hose.  Stand  pipes  supplied  from 
elevated  tanks  of  usual  capacity  and  at  average  eleva¬ 
tions,  are  not  of  value  for  hose  stream  service. 


16 


Steam  Jets. — Are  sometimes  quite  efficient  in  suppressing- 
fires  in  dry-rooms  and  other  confined  spaces ;  where 
used  there  should  be  ample  boiler  capacity  behind  them 
to  insure  volume  of  steam. 

Sand  Pails. — Dry,  granular  sand,  freed  from  excess  of  clay 
or  loam,  forms  a  very  efficient  means  of  extinguishing- 
fires  in  oils,  varnish  and  other  inflammable  fluids  by 
smothering  the  flame.  A  proper  supply  should  be  main¬ 
tained,  with  a  scoop  for  its  distribution,  in  places  where 
such  inflammables  are  used  or  stored. 

Steam  Fire  Pumps. — Are  a  very  efficient  means  of  fire  pro¬ 
tection  when  they  are  properly  designed  for  the  special 
purpose,  and  situated  in  a  fireproof  structure  separated 
from  the  general  plant,  with  independent  and  duplicate 
sources  of  steam  supply,  and  have  a  water  supply  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  insure  continuous  operation  for  a 
period  of  not  'less  than  one  hour’s  duration  at  full 
capacity. 

-  Ordinary  trade  pumps,  while  efficient  for  general  serv¬ 
ice,  are  seldom  reliable  under  the  stress  of  fire  demands. 

Centrifugal  or  Turbine  Pumps. — When  these  are  designed 
especially  for  duty  in  fire  service  they  promise  to  be  of 
considerable  value  when  properly  located  as  to  exposure 
and  fitted  with  both  steam  and  water  supply  required  for 
the  direct  acting  steam  fire  pump. 

Electrical  Pumps. — Special  fire  pumps  operated  by  the 
electric  current  are  coming  into  use  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  when  properly  designed  and  located,  with  two 
separated  and  reliable  sources  of  supply  for  power,  may 
be  expected  to  do  good  service. 

Rotary  Pumps. — Water  power  rotary  fire  pumps  when  de¬ 
signed  for  the  purpose  are  capable  of  rendering  very 
good  service  under  favorable  conditions  of  power  supply 
and  location,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  best  results  are  not 
obtainable,  for  the  reason  that  the  usual  location  of  the 
device  is  in  a  wheel  pit  or  other  equally  unaccessible  spot 
difficult  to  reach  in  case  of  fire,  and  for  the  same  reason 
is  liable  to  be  neglected  as  to  inspection  and  up-keep. 

Fire  Hydrants. — Whether  public  or  private,  should  conform 
in  construction  to  the  National  Standard,  with  a  barrel 
of  not  less  than  six  (6")  inches  in  diameter,  and  be  fed 
from  a  service  main  of  not  less  than  the  same  dimen¬ 
sions  forming  a  complete  circuit  of  the  system,  without 
dead  ends,  meter  connections  or  other  obstructions  to 
the  free  flow  of  water,  and  be  located  at  a  distance  of  not 
less  than  50  feet  from  the  buildings  to  be  protected. 

Hose  connections  or  outlets  should  be  of  the  National 
Standard  pattern,  unless  the  city  outlets  differ  from  it, 
in  which  event  the  outlets  on  private'  equipment  should 
conform  to  the  latter. 


17 


Fire  Hose. — This  is  an  important  item  controlling  the  effi¬ 
ciency  of  fire  streams  where  hose  is  used,  from  the  fact 
that  the  loss  of  head  due  to  friction  in  the  passage  of 
water  through  hose  of  the  very  best  rubber  lined  quality 
(of  2 y2"  size)  amounts  to  about  14  pounds  per  hundred 
feet  of  hose,  while  with  the  ordinary  quality  of  hose  on 
the  market  and  in  use,  such  loss  of  head  may  reach  25 
or  more  pounds  per  100  feet. 

Hose  for  use  on  hydrants  and  other  devices  supplying 
streams  on  the  outside  of  buildings  should  be  of  not  less 
than  2 diameter,  with  nozzles  of  1^-inch  smooth 
bore  pattern,  while  hose  for  use  inside  of  a  structure 
should  preferably  be  not  in  excess  of  2  inches  in  diameter 
with  a  J/s-inch  smooth  nozzle,  in  order  to  insure  quick 
and  effective  handling  by  novices. 

Underground  Piping. — Should  be  laid  in  complete  circuit, 
and  where  the  system  is  extensive,  should  be  gridironed 
in  order  to  secure  circulation.  Pipe  sizes  of  less  than 
6  inches  in  diameter  should  not  be  permitted  in  any 
equipment.  One  steam  fire  engine  connected  to  a  six- 
inch  service  line  will  cut  off  supply  to  any  other  device 
in  the  same  line  of  service. 

In  order  to  be  assured  of  even  an  approximately  satisfac¬ 
tory  system  for  any  individual  plant,  practically  none  of  the 
appliances  and  devices  above  mentioned  should  be  omitted, 
except  in  the  matter  of  fire  pump  selection,  where  a  choice 
may  be  had,  and  the  presence  of  all  such  apparatus  is  deemed 
essential  to  supplement  the  protection  to  be  expected  from 
a  properly  installed  automatic  sprinkler  system. 

If  the  time  allotted  to  me  for  delivery  of  this  address 
would  permit  the  effort,  I  might  go  somewhat  into  detail 
as  to  the  principal  causes  of  fires  in  manufacturing  plants, 
but  this  subject  is  one  with  a  very  broad  field  of  possibilities 
and  of  experience,  hence,  I  must  content  myself  by  stating 
that  as  about  80%  of  all  fires  are  due  to  carelessness,  and 
that  in  the  final  analysis  of  the  remaining  20%  which  is 
usually  attributed  to  accident,  close  investigation  would  show 
that  as  about  80%  of  these  so-called  accidents  are  justly 
attributable  to  a  lack  of  proper  supervision  of  machines  or 
devices  and  of  process  methods,  we  will  have  left  but  a  small 
percentage  which  may  be  classed  as  entirely  accidental  and 
unpreventable,  and  a  faithful  adherence  to  the  gospel  of 
“Good  House-keeping”  would  unquestionably  prove  the  cure 
for  even  the  supposedly  unpreventable  causes.  * 

In  concluding  my  remarks  I  desire  to  call  your  attention 
to  the  value  of  the  text  books,  or  “Rules  and  Requirements” 
published  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  cov¬ 
ering  the  fire  hazards  and  means  of  fire  prevention  or  extinc¬ 
tion,  copies  of  each  of  which  it  has  afforded  me  much  pleasure 
to  present  to  you,  and  to  express  the  hope  that  they  may 


18 


prove  of  service  to  you  in  your  work  of  standardizing  factory 
design  in  the  matter  of  fire  prevention  and  fire  protection, 
and  thus,  by  instruction  and  guidance,  lead  the  unit  of  values 
into  such  comprehension  of  its  importance  to  the  conserva¬ 
tion  of  the  interests  of  the  whole  people  of  this  country,  as 
to  show  marked  results  in  the  reduction  of  the  inexcusable 
fire  waste,  which,  if  unchecked,  promises  to  certainly  im¬ 
poverish  our  people  as  a  whole,  and  to  you,  young  gentle¬ 
men,  comes  the  call  to  “spread  the  gospel  of  conservation 
of  our  created  resources,”  and  I  trust  your  response  may  be 
both  earnest  and  successful. 


iy 


Combination  Heating  and 
Ventilating  Systems 


The  practice  of  combining  heating  and  ventilating  proc¬ 
esses  into  a  joint  system  is  based  upon  that  principle  of  physics 
which  demonstrates  the  difference  in  gravity  between  cold 
(or  foul)  air  and  that  of  heated  air;  the  former  being  the 
heavier  tends  to  fall,  while  the  latter  from  its  lightness  tends 
to  rise,  these  differences  in  density  serving  to  create  currents 
of  opposite  direction,  whereby  the  ascending  current  of  heated 
air  displaces  the  cold  or  foul  air,  which  then  falls  to  the  level 
of  the  floor  of  any  enclosed  space,  where  from  its  density  it 
would  remain  stratified  unless  displaced  by  agitation  or  by 
liberation  through  vents  at  its  level. 

Hence  in  all  scientifically  planned  combined  heating  and 
ventilating  systems  where  natural  forces  are  utilized  as  means 
of  operation,  the  vent  ducts  for  the  escape  or  removal  of  cold 
or  foul  air  are  located  at  the  floor  level  of  an  enclosure,  and 
when  properly  installed,  insure  successful  accomplishment 
of  the  purpose  intended,  even  if  in  arrangement  and  construc¬ 
tion  such  system  may  not  always  present  conditions  promising 
immunity  from  fire  through  the  faults  of  design  and  instal¬ 
lation. 

Experience  has  fully  demonstrated  that  the  important 
feature  of  fire  hazard  has  not  generally  influenced  the  design 
and  introduction  of  such  systems,  this  being  particularly  true 
in  relation  to  the  conditions  found  to  exist  in  the  average 
school  house  and  church  structure,  as  well  as  in  many  public 
halls,  court  houses  and  the  like,  where  it  is  not  at  all  unusual 
to  find  wood  ducts  or  conduits  in  use,  not  only  for  conveying 
the  outer  air  to  the  base  of  the  heating  furnace,  but  also  as 
flues  for  conveying  the  heated  air  to  points  of  distribution, 
and  for  the  removal  of  the  cold  and  foul  air  from  the  heated 
enclosures ;  this  practice  in  either  of  its  phases  is  most  repre¬ 
hensible,  and  under  intelligent  supervision  and  regulation  is 
never  sanctioned,  while  in  advanced  communities  such  prac¬ 
tice  is  in  violation  of  the  law  and  subjects  the  responsible 
violator  to  prosecution  and  penalty  on  conviction. 


1 


Under  this  method  of  heating  and  ventilation  are  to  be 
found  two  distinct  systems  respectively  known  as  the  “ direct ” 
and  the  “indirect."  Under  the  former  the  foul  and  dust  laden 
air  is  carried  from  the’  floor  of  the  rooms  through  ducts  or 
flues  by  action  of  the  heated  air  currents  which  displace  the 
foul,  and  these  flues  deliver  the  foul  air  above  the  roof  of  the 
building,  thus  securing  the  direct  ventilation  which  serves  to 
indicate  the  method,  and  where  such  system  is  properly  in¬ 
stalled  it  presents  the  least  hazard  of  these  combination 
systems. 

The  “Indirect”  system,  such  for  instance  as  the  “Smead 
System,”  seeks  to  secure  the  removal  of  all  foul  or  cold  air, 
not  only  from  the  area  of  the  room  enclosures,  but  also  from 
all  of  the  hollow  spaces  surrounding  the  same,  including  the 
spaces  between  the  floor  joists  and  the  partition  studding; 
to  accomplish  this  end,  the  area  of  space  between  the  floor 
joists  is  increased  by  nailing  2x4  wall  strips  across  the  joists, 
and  openings  are  made  through  partition  walls  from  the  joist- 
channels  to  the  spaces  between  the  studs,  thus  providing  a 
complete  maze  of  communicating  horizontal  and  vertical 
spaces,  accessible  to  flame  while  inaccessible  to  means  of  ex¬ 
tinction,  the  whole  presenting*  a  most  cunningly  devised  means 
of  insuring  rapid  combustion  and  destruction  of  the  building 
in  case  of  fire. 

In  some  instances  the  above  objectionable  features  of  the 
“indirect”  system  are  found  to  be  materially  aggravated  by 
the  presence  and  use  of  the  so-called  “dry-closet”  system 
( Smead  System),  in  the  operation  of  which  excreta  from  the 
toilets  is  destroyed  by  burning  with  the  aid  of  volatile  or 
highly  combustible  material  such  as  gasoline  or  kerosene  oil 
for  fuel,  hence,  where  the  “indirect”  system  is  in  use,  with  or 
without  the  “dry-closet”  attachment,  we  prefer  to  decline  the 
risk  absolutely. 

As  it  is  entirely  within  the  bounds  of  commercial  prac¬ 
tice  to  install  these  combination  systems  in  a  manner  which 
will  markedly  minimize,  if  it  may  not  entirely  eliminate,  the 
‘danger  of  fire  now  so  evident  in  general  practice,  there  is  no 
good  reason  why  such  precautions  should  not  be  insisted  upon 
in  all  cases,  whether  the  installation  be  new  or  old,  and  we 
therefore  submit  the  following  suggestions  as  being  based 
on  good  practice  in  relation  to  construction  and  installation 
of  such  systems. 

HEATING  FURNACES  should  in  all  cases  be  erected 
upon  a  solid  foundation  of  brick  or  stone,  with  hearth  of 
brick,  stone  or  cement  not  less  than  36  inches  wide  in  front 
of  the  ash  pit.  The  top  or  dome  of  the  furnace,  and  also  its 
smoke  pipe,  should  not  be  less  than  18  to  20  inches  from 
unprotected  woodwork  or  lath  and  plaster,  and  its  side  walls 
should  be  at  least  12  inches  from  combustible  material. 


2 


§ 


SMOKE  STACK  OR  CHIMNEY  should  be  built  of 
sound,  hard  brick  on  a  solid  foundation,  with  double  walls 
well  bedded  in  cement  mortar  and  having-  an  air  space  between 
the  walls,  with  all  joints  inside  of  flue  carefully  pointed ;  or 
may  be  single  walled,  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  enclosing 
burned  clay  smoke  flues,  or  if  without  such  smoke  flues,  walls 
must  not  be  less  than  8  inches  thick  and  all  joints,  both  inside 
and  outside,  should  be  as  carefully  “pointed  up”  as  would  be 
called  for  in  a  pressed  brick  front.  Stack  should  be  carried 
4  feet  above  the  roof,  and  all  timbers  or  woodwork  exposed 
to  stack  should  be  framed  around  same,  leaving  an  air  space 
of  not  less  than  2  inches  on  all  exposing  sides. 

HOT  AIR  DUCTS  should  preferably  be  entirely  of  brick 
or  hard  burned  terra  cotta  tile,  properly  insulated  from  con¬ 
tact  with  woodwork  or  other  combustible'  material,  but  may 
be  constructed  of  expanded  metal  and  plaster  or  of  bright 
charcoal  tin ;  properly  supported  and  insulated  by  air  space 
of  not  less  than  2]/2  inches  from  all  exposed  woodwork  in 
either  case,  and  if  constructed  of  tin,  to  be  made  double  with 
an  air  space  of  not  less  than  *4  inch  between  the  inner  and 
outer  flues  when  passing  through  or  within  wooden  or  latli 
and  plaster  partitions. 

FOUL  AIR  DUCTS  should  be  constructed  in  same 
manner  as  suggested  for  hot  air  ducts,  but  may  be  installed 
with  not  less  than  1  inch  clear  space'  to  woodwork.  Ducts 
should  not  be  connected  directly  with  heating  furnace  nor  any 
hot  air  or  smoke  flue,  but  preferably  to  a  special  flue  adjoin¬ 
ing  a  brick  smoke  or  hot  air  flue  carried  to  the  same  height, 
but  separated  therefrom  by  not  less  than  4  inches  of  brick 
work.  (The  radiated  heat  from  the  smoke  flue  will  thus 
induce  an  upward  current  in  the  foul  air  duct  adjoining.) 

If  foul  air  ducts  be  not  connected  to  smoke  or  hot  air 
flue  as  above  suggested,  they  should  each  empty  into  a  vertical 
flue  of  proper  construction,  which  should  extend  above  the 
roof  of  the  building,  in  which  case  the  bottom  of  the  flue 
could  be  left  open  and  an  upward  current  be  induced  by  the 
heat  from  the  furnace  room,  or  by  location  of  an  open  gas 
flame  at  base  of  flue. 

HOT  AIR  REGISTERS,  when  placed  in  wooden  floors 
or  wainscoting  should  be  set  in  soap-stone  frames  not  less 
than  2  inches  wide,  well  set  and  embedded  in  plaster  of  Paris. 
Register  boxes  where  passing  through  floors  or  wainscoting 
should  be  made  of  bright  charcoal  tin,  having  joist  or  floor 
timbers  framed  around  them  to  leave  a  space  of  from  2  to 
2y2  inches  on  all  sides  according  to  the  size  of  the  box,  the 
exposed  woodwork  to  be  covered  with  bright  tin  on  all  sides, 
extending  from  under  the  soap-stone  frame  to  and  under  the 
ceiling  or  open  joist  below. 


3 


> 


, 

1 

I 


At  least  one  register  of  any  system  should  always  be  kept 
wide  open,  either  by  the  removal  of  the  vanes  or  by  securely 
wiring  the  valve  to  prevent  its  being  closed. 

COLD  AIR  DUCTS  should  preferably  be  entirely  of  brick, 
metal  or  other  non-combustible  material,  but  may,  under 
approved  conditions,  be  of  wood  up  to  a  point  not  closer  than 
5  feet  from  inlet  base  at  furnace,  from,  which  distance  the 
construction  should  be  entirely  of  brick,  metal  or  other  non¬ 
combustible  material.  The  duct  should  extend  to  the  outer 
side  of  the  building  wall  and  be  provided  with  wire  net  or 
grating  at  that  point. 

As  the  average  installation  of  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus  is  seldom  found  to  closely  conform  to  the  above 
suggestions  for  safety,  there  may  be  cases  where  the  devia¬ 
tion  from  the  lines  laid  down  are  of  such  minor  character  as 
to  not  seriously  increase  the  fire  hazard  beyond  that  of  the 
nature  of  their  surroundings  and  in  such  instances  the  judg¬ 
ment  of  the  inspector  should  be  exercised  as  to  the  proper 
course  of  action,  always  taking  the  benefit  of  a  doubt  on  the 
side  of  caution  where  proper  remedy  cannot  be  promptly 
secured. 

In  the  average  district  or  village  school  house  the  most 
frequent  deviations  from  safe  practice  will  usually  be  found 
to  lie  in  the  character  of  the  material  used  in  the  construction 
.and  the  arrangement  of  the  foul  air  ducts  or  flues  or  the  trunk 
flue  conveying  air  to  the  fire  box  of  the  furnace  or  heater, 
and  in  illustration  of  such  conditions  we  cite  the  following 
instances  of  dangerous  practice  as  developed  by  recent 
Inspections. 

(1)  FOUL  AIR  FLUE  (  vertical)  discharging  under 
the  roof  in  attic,  thus  providing  means  by  which  fire  would 
very  quickly  reach  the  most  inaccessible  portion  of  the  struc¬ 
ture  and  gain  headway  before  discovery.  Such  arrangement 
should  serve  to  condemn  the  risk,  whether  the  flue  be  non¬ 
combustible  or  of  wood,  as  in  either  case  the  accumulation  of 
dust  and  fluffy  flyings  would  serve  to  feed  a  flame. 

(2)  FOUL  AIR  DUCT,  leading  from  outlets  at  floors 
above  the  heating  device  to  the  base  of  same  at  fire  box.  The 
method  here  noted  is  essentially  dangerous,  as  falling  embers 
from  the  furnace  grate  are  liable  to  ignite  the  dust,  paper  or 
other  refuse  which  accumulates  in  the1 2 3  duct,  and  thus  convey 
fire  to  the  building.  Where  such  conditions  exist  they  serve 
to  condemn  the  risk,  whether  the  foul  air  flue  be  of  wood  or 
of  non-combustible  material. 

(3)  FOUL  AIR  FLUE  (horizontal)  passing  under  the 
ceiling  from  the  floor  outlets  above  the  furnace  room  and 
opening  into  the  smoke  flue  of  the  heater  stack  or  chimney; 
arrangements  of  this  character  may  well  be  classed  as  excep- 


C. 


4 


tionally  hazardous,  as  the  heated  air  of  the  smoke  flue  serves 
to  carbonize  the  accumulation  of  dust,  flyings  and  other  refuse 
adhering  to  inside  of  foul  air  duct,  and  will  eventually  ignite 
same,  while  a  rising  spark  from  a  newly  kindled  fire  in  the 
furnace  is  almost  sure  to  cause  such  ignition  and  carry  flame 
to  the  interior  of  the  structure,  hence,  the  presence  of  such 
conditions  will  render  the  risk  unacceptable. 

(4)  FOUL  AIR  FLUE  (horizontal)  passing  under 
the  ceiling  of  heater  room  or  cellar  and  emptying  into  open 
room.  This  practice  presents  an  unnecessary  open  ended  flue 
by  which  fire  would  rapidly  pass  into  the  structure  and  be 
difficult  to  extinguish,  and  while  this  condition  is  not  as 
hazardous  as  the  instances  above  cited,  it  is  sufficiently  objec¬ 
tionable  to  warrant  severe  criticism  and  demand  for  the  use 
of  non-combustible  material  in  construction  of  the  flue  with 
a  wire  screen  at  its  outlet.  The  method  is  unsanitary. 

(5)  HOT  AIR  FLUES,  when  constructed  of  wood, 
serve  to  condemn  the  risk  entirely. 

(6)  COLD  AIR  DUCT,  when  entirely  of  wood  up  to 
entrance  of  furnace  shell,  presents  a  feature  of  hazard  but 
slightly  less  objectionable  than  the  deviation  noted  under 
citation  No.  2  and  for  the  same  reasons  and  demand  should 
be  made  for  substitution  of  non-combustible  material  for  a 
distance  of  five  feet  from  the  furnace  shell. 

From  the  above  citations  it  is  apparent  that  much  care 
must  be  exercised  by  the  inspector  in  the  examination  and 
study  of  the  deviations  from  good  practice1  which  will  come 
before  him,  and  while  strict  adherence  to  the  above  precepts 
may  result  in  the  loss  of  some  otherwise  desirable  risks,  it  is 
wiser  to  lose  the  premium  on  same  than  to  pay  the  face  of  the 
policy  on  any  from  loss  arising  from  defects  noted,  or  from 
others  of  like  hazard  which  inspection  may  develop. 

In  conclusion,  every  effort  and  argument  should  be  used 
by  the  inspector  to  bring  all  heating  and  ventilating  installa¬ 
tions  up  to  the  standard  of  safety  above  outlined  wherever 
possible  and  to  secure  improvements  or  changes  in  arrange¬ 
ment  where  such  action  may  result  in  making  the  outfit  rea¬ 
sonably  safe,  bearing  in  mind  that  intelligent  explanation  of 
the  defects  and  of  remedies  for  same,  together  with  firm 
insistance  for  compliance  to  safe  practice  will  in  many 
instances  bring  about  the  desired  reforms,  and  that  where  it 
becomes  impossible  to  secure  the  elimination  of  unsafe  condi¬ 
tions,  it  is  best  to  keep  off  the  risk. 


New  York,  February,  1907. 


General  Inspector 


5 


Window  Glass 
Works 


(pkq] 

1«®J 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


•• 


Window  or  Sheet  Glass  Works 


Preliminary  to  the  consideration  of  the'  physical  hazards 
incident  to  the  production  of  window  or  sheet  glass,  it  is 
deemed  proper  to  present  the  following  remarks  in  relation 
to  the  changes  in  operating  methods  which  have  been  intro¬ 
duced  in  this  industry  since  my  brief  report  on  the  class,  which 
was  in  the  form  of  a  supplement  to  the  monograph  on  PLATE 
GLASS,  issued  by  the  HOME,  October,  1902. 

During  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  there  has  been  taking 
place  marked  changes  in  the  methods  of  producing  window 
glass ;  in  the  earlier  methods  practically  all  window  glass  was 
made  by  hand  labor,  which  gained  high  wages  through  its 
skill  in  forming  cylinders  from  the  molten  metal  by  off-hand 
blowing  and  manipulation,  but  under  labor  union  restrictions 
production  was  usually  limited  to  not  more  than  nine  or  ten 
months’  operation  during  any  one  year  or  “fire,”  thus  present¬ 
ing  such  onerous  and  unfavorable  conditions  in  the  industry 
that  the  manufacturers  began  experimenting  with  mechanical 
blowing  devices,  by  the  use  of  which  they  might  hope  to 
secure  better  control  over  the  operation  of  their  factories  and 
in  the  handling  of  the  business. 

The  result  of  these  efforts  has  been  the  gradual  improve¬ 
ment  of  machine  blowing  and  drawing  devices  designed  to 
almost  completely  replace  skilled  hand  labor,  with  such  suc¬ 
cess  as  to  now  show  some  nine  or  ten  different  types  of  such 
machines,  each  of  which  while  different  in  methods  of  opera¬ 
tion,  is  claimed  to  be  capable  of  producing  the  highest  grade 
of  cylinder  glass  at  a  most  marked  reduction  in  labor  cost  as 
compared  with  off-hand  operations. 

In  addition  to  these  cylinder  drawing  and  blowing 
devices,  there  is  now  under  experimental  operation  a  device 
for  drawing  the  molten  metal  directly  from  the  melting  tank 
in  the  form  of  sheet  glass,  thus  entirely  eliminating  the  blow¬ 
ing  process  incident  to  the  formation  of  cylinder  glass  by 
hand  or  machine  methods. 

Supplementing  the  successful  operation  of  the  mechanical 
blowing  and  drawing  devices,  radical  changes  have  taken  place 
in  the  method  of  melting  glass  through  the  substitution  of 
tank  furnaces  in  lieu  of  the  pot  furnaces  formerly  in  general 
use  for  that  purpose,  with  the  result  that  the  use  of  pot  fur¬ 
naces  in  this  industry  has  become  practically  obsolete,  as  the 


1 


introduction  of  the  tank  furnace  not  only  served  to  materially 
reduce  the  expense  of  up-keep,  but  also  more  than  doubled 
capacity  for  production.  It  is  therefore  doubtful  whether  any 
window  glass  factory  operating  with  a  pot  furnace  equipment 
could  maintain  a  profitable  existence  in  competition  with  a 
modern  plant  having  tank  equipment. 


The  process  methods  of  window  glass  production  include 
some  hazards  of  considerable  intensity  due  to  the  use  of  many 
heat  producing  devices,  in  some  of  which  the  temperature 
reaches  from  2,600  to  2,700  degrees  Fahr.,  in  addition  to  those 
of  more  common  nature  incident  to  packing  and  storage  of  the 
finished  material,  as  may  be  noted  in  the  following  description 
of  the  processes  involved : 

Raw  Stock. — The  material  used  in  forming  the  “batch” 
for  melting  generally  includes  washed  and  dried  silicious  sand, 
lime  or  crushed  lime  stone,  soda  ash  (salt  cake),  and  a  por¬ 
tion  of  arsenic  (cobalt)  or  other  metallic  base  for  coloring; 
waste  or  broken  glass  (cullet)  also  being  utilized.  These 
materials  usually  come  to  the  plant  properly  prepared  for 
mixing  into  the  batch,  and  aside  from  the  possibility  of  spon¬ 
taneous  ignition  of  the  lime,  are  without  inherent  hazard. 

Melting  Furnaces. — Under  modern  practice  these  devices 
are  of  the  tank  type,  built  of  brick,  lined  with  refractory 
material  and  supported  on  heavy  brick  arches ;  natural  or 
producer  gas  which  has  passed  through  a  regenerating  fur¬ 
nace  to  intensify  its  heat  is  used  for  fuel.  These  tanks  may 
be  of  the  continuous  type,  into  which  the  batch  is  fed  at  one 
end  and  when  melted  is  “gathered”  at  the  other  by  off-hand 
blowers,  or  is  delivered  direct  to  the  supplemental  tank  of 
the  mechanical  drawing  and  blowing  device,  the  process  of 
charging  and  gathering'  being  continuous  day  and  night 
during  the  fire  or  until  accident  compels  a  shut-down. 

Another  class  of  tank  furnace  is  of  similar  construction 
but  of  smaller  size,  known  as  a  “day  tank,”  in  which  the 
batch  is  charged  during  the  night  and  melting  is  continued 
through  day  working  hours  only ;  this  type  of  tank  is  usual 
in  hand  operated  plants  only. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  tank  furnaces  the'  batch  was 
melted  in  pot  furnaces  of  circular  form,  with  inside  lining, 
bench  and  crown  of  refractory  clay  blocks,  the  outside  walls 
being  of  brick  tapering  above  the  crown  to  form  a  stack  or 
chimney,  the  whole  being  supported  on  heavy  brick  arched 
foundation  with  an  arched  “cave”  and  tunnel  underneath  the 
bench ;  this  type  of  furnace  ranged  from  ten  to  twenty-four 
pots  capacity,  and  was  heated  by  natural  or  producer  gas,  by 
coal  fire,  or  all  of  these1  in  combination,  either  by  direct  flame 
from  the  fuels  named  or  through  the  use  of  regenerative 
furnaces. 


Ill  this  type  of  furnace  the  melting  pots  undergo  pre¬ 
liminary  heating  to  prepare  them  for  charging  with  the  batch, 
and  when  the  mass  has  become  fluid  the  glass  is  gathered  by 
hand  and  blown  into  cylinders  of  various  dimensions  by 
skilled  off-hand  blowers. 

The  working  floors  and  their  supporting  members  and 
the  floors  surrounding  the  base  of  either  of  these  types  of 
furnaces  should  be  of  fire-proof  construction  for  a  distance 
of  at  least  twenty  feet  in  all  directions,  and  in  addition,  a  brick 
bridge  or  dam  should  be  built  across  the  tunnel  where  it 
pierces  the  supporting  walls  of  the  furnaces,  these  precautions 
being  necessary  to  prevent  ignition  of  combustibles  through 
contact  with  escaping  molten  glass  from  ruptured  tank  or 
pot ;  it  may  be  here  stated  that  very  few,  if  any,  pot  furnaces 
are  now  in  use  in  the  window  glass  industry. 

Reheating  Furnaces. — These  devices  are  usually  circular 
in  form  with  dome  shaped  tops,  built  of  brick  and  heated  by 
gas  or  fuel  oil  flame  and  closely  adjoin  the  blow  or  swing 
pits  in  which  the  off-hand  blower  swings  the  glass  cylinder 
while  forming  it.  The  surroundings  of  these  reheaters  should 
at  least  be  of  fire  resistive  construction,  including  the  supports 
of  the  blower’s  platforms.  This  type  of  furnace  is  used  only 
in  hand  operated  shops,  no  reheating  being  necessary  where 
the  cylinders  are  machine  drawn  and  blown. 

Machine  Blowing. — Mechanical  drawing  and  blowing 
devices  are  in  successful  operation  for  the  production  of  high 
grade  window  glass  and  differ  only  in  respect  to  the  method 
by  which  the  molten  metal  is  fed  to  the  several  types ;  in  one 
type  it  flows  from  the  melting  tank  through  a  gas  heated 
spout  or  “dog  house”  to  a  small  stationary  tank  directly 
underneath  the  drawing  device ;  another  draws  the  metal  from 
a  small  stationary  gas  heated  tank  which  is  filled  with  metal 
by  hand  operated  ladles,  while  a  third  type  is  supplied  in 
sequence  from  three  horizontally  rotating  feed  tanks,  which 
are  filled  from  the  melting  tank  by  hand  manipulated  ladles. 
Each  of  these  classes  of  supplemental  tanks  and  the  “dog 
house”  is  constructed  of  refractory  material  and  heated  by 
gas  flame  to  a  temperature  which  insures  proper  fluidity  of 
the  metal  while  it  is  being  drawn;  hence,  it  is  essential  that 
the  immediate  surroundings  of  these  drawing  devices  and  their 
heat  producing  adjuncts  should  be  of  fire-proof  construction. 

These  mechanical  blowers  draw  cylinders  of  from  20  to 
^  35  feet  in  vertical  length  and  from  20  to  42  inches  or  more 

in  diameter;  the  circumference  of  the  drawn  cylinder  fixing 
the  length  of  the  sheet,  while  its  width  is  determined  by  the 
length  into  which  the  cylinder  is  divided  sectionally,  this 
being  in  contradistinction  to  the  practice  as  applied  to  hand 
drawn  cylinders,  the  length  of  which  controls  the  longest 
dimension  of  the  sheet,  while  its  circumferential  measurement 
limits  its  width. 


3 


In  operation  the  mechanical  blower  drops  its  drawing 
head  or  ‘‘thief”  or  “bait”  into  contact  with  the  molten  metal 
which  adheres  to  it  and  is  drawn  vertically  by  lifting  the 
draw-head,  which  is  guided  in  its  course  by  fixed  side  rods, 
and  at  the  same  time  air  under  pressure  is  forced  into  the 
rising  cylinder  until  its  elongation  is  completed,  the  operation 
of  drawing  and  regulation  of  air  pressure  being  secured 
through  electrical  devices  under  control  of  skilled  operators 
perched  in  pulpits ;  when  drawn  the  cylinder  is  cracked  off  at 
its  top  and  base  and  removed  from  the  drawing  device  by  a 
vertically  swinging  hinged  crane-arm  and  brought  to  a  hori¬ 
zontal  position  preparatory  to  being  cracked  into  sections 
and  in  a  longitudinal  line,  prior  to  its  entry  into  the  flatten¬ 
ing  oven. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  the  operation  of  these  me¬ 
chanical  drawing  and  blowing  devices  all  highly  skilled  labor 
by  hand  is  dispensed  with,  the  simplicity  and  economy  of 
the  operation  being  in  marked  contrast  to  that  of  hand 
operated  plants,  in  which  high  priced  skilled  hand  labor  is 
necessary  for  both  gathering  and  blowing,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  volume  of  output  and  the  quality  of  machine 
blown  glass  is  claimed  to  be  superior  in  every  respect. 

Flattening  Oven  and  Lehr. — In  this  device  the  oven  forms 
the  head  of  the  lehr;  it  is  constructed  of  brick  with  flat  or 
arched  top  and  is  lined  with  refractory  material,  including 
a  carefully  leveled  fire-clay  bed,  and  is  heated  by  means  of 
gas  flame,  coal  fire  or  fuel  oil ;  the  “roller”  or  cracked  cylinder 
is  placed  in  the  oven  with  the  cracked  side  uppermost, 
where,  under  the  influence  of  heat  the  glass  is  softened  and 
the  cracked  cylinder  opens  until  it  lies  flat  on  the  bed  of  the 
oven ;  it  is  then  further  flattened  and  smoothed  by  passing 
over  its  surface  prepared  hard-wood  blocks,  this  being  a  hand 
operation  necessitating  skilled  manipulation ;  when  flattened 
the  sheet  is  pushed  forward  onto  a  metal  conveyor  within  the 
lehr,  which  latter  device  is  of  brick  construction,  with  flat 
or  low  arched  top,  heated  at  intervals  of  its  length  by  gas 
flames  of  reducing  temperature  to  the  “take-off”  or  delivery 
end  of  the  device,  at  which  point  the  cooled  sheet  is  removed 
by  hand  to  the  cutting  and  packing  rooms 

This  device  should  be  of  substantial  construction,  be 
kept  free  from  contact  with  combustible  material,  including 
such  as  is  too  frequently  to  be  found  piled  on  top  of  it. 

Cutting  and  Packing. — These  processes  are  usually  car¬ 
ried  on  in  structures  of  considerable  area,  in  which  the  sheet 
glass  is  cut  to  dimensions  on  gauged  tables,  and  then  packed 
with  hay,  straw  or  excelsior  in  light  wooden  boxes  or  crates ; 
both  cutting  and  packing  are  done  by  hand,  the  packing 
operation  necessitating  the  presence  and  use  of  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  combustible  material,  in  the  handling  of  which  much 
readily  ignitable  rubbish  is  produced,  hence,  packing  material 


4 


should  be  restricted  in  quantity  to  that  necessary  for  the  day’s 
use,  be  kept  in  bins  with  self-closing  covers,  and  all  rub¬ 
bish  should  be  removed  from  the  packing  room  at  the  close 
of  each  day’s  work. 

Box  or  Crate  Shop. — The  material  used  in  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  these  containers  usually  comes  to  the  shop  in  shooks 
cut  to  dimensions,  and  is  nailed  together  by  hand  or  machine ; 
shooks  are  sometimes  stamped  or  printed  in  a  power  press, 
necessitating  the  presence  and  use  of  some  volatile  detergent 
for  cleaning  purposes ;  such  volatiles  should  be  kept  in  ap¬ 
proved  safety  cans  of  capacity  not  in  excess  of  a  day’s  supply, 
the  bulk  of  such  material  to  be  properly  housed  outside  of 
shop. 

Lumber  and  shooks  when  not  in  process  of  conversion 
into  packages  should  preferably  be  piled  under  cover  and 
be  so  located  as  to  not  form  an  exposure  to  the  plant. 

Warehouses. — These  structures  are  usually  of  extreme 
area,  frequently  being  located  in  groups  forming  mutual  ex¬ 
posures  of  note ;  the  principal  hazards  being  those  of  large 
area  and  the  readily  combustible  nature  of  the  packages 
which  they  contain. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  when  sheet  glass  is  sub¬ 
jected  to  the  effects  of  heat  due  to  a  fire  and  in  contact  with 
water,  it  is  liable  to  take  on  surface  stains  from  the  wetted 
packing  and  the  corrosive  action  of  smoke ;  these  stains  are 
said  to  become  indelible  unless  the  glass  be  removed  from 
its  package,  washed  and  properly  dried  within  two  weeks 
after  the  damage  occurs. 


New  York,  July,  1915. 


5 


. 


Plate, 

Rolled  and  Cathedral 
Glass  Works 

(Ppi) 

(«ej 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


Plate,  Rolled  and  Cathedral  Glass 


The  methods  of  producing  glass  of  the  classes  above  in¬ 
dicated  are  identical  in  respect  to  general  processes,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  differences  being  in  the  nature  of  the  raw  material  com¬ 
posing  the  batch,  which,  when  melted,  is  formed  into  plates 
on  an  iron  casting  table  by  passing  an  iron  roller  over  the 
mass-,  the  operation  of  producing  the  rough  plate  necessitating 
the  use  of  very  simple  mechanical  devices  and  appliances, 
without  the  complications  usual  to  other  classes  of  glass 
production. 

Raw  Stock. — In  preparing  the  batch  for  plate  glass  pro¬ 
duction  the  principal  ingredients  used  include  washed  and 
dried  sand,  high  in  silica  content,  soda  ash  (salt  cake),  lime 
or  crushed  limestone,  with  a  portion  of  arsenic  or  other 
metallic  base  for  coloring,  the  waste  or  broken  glass  (cullet) 
also  being  used. 

The  materials  composing  the  batch  for  producing  so- 
called  rolled  and/or  cathedral  glass,  contain  in  addition  to 
that  used  in  plate  batch,  any  or  all  of  the  following  materials : 
cryolite,  feldspar,  fluorspar,  lead  and  zinc  oxides  or  other 
metallic  bases.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  none  of  these  materials 
is  of  combustible  nature,  nor  do  they  present  any  fire  hazard 
as  incident  to  their  use,  but  the  chemical  reaction  which  is 
brought  about  by  the  liberation  of  fluosilicic  acid  during  the 
process  of  fusing  cryolite  is  liable  to  disintegrate  and  break 
down  the  material  composing  the  melting  pots  and/or  tanks, 
thus  permitting  the  possible  escape  of  the  molten  glass,  which 
coming  into  contact  with  combustible  material  might  serve 
to  ignite  it. 

Melting  Furnaces. — May  be  either  of  the  tank  or  pot 
type,  usually  constructed  with  heavy  brick  walls  lined  with 
refractory  fire  brick  or  clay  blocks  with  arched  tops  and  iron 
back  stays ;  tank  furnaces  are  usually  built  over  brick  arched 
foundations,  with  a  cave  opening  into  brick  arched  tunnels 
under  the  bench  of  the  furnace ;  in  such  cases  the  tunnels 
should  be  bridged  or  dammed  to  a  height  of  two  feet  at  the 
point  where  they  pierce  the  supporting  walls  of  the  tank,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  outflow  of  molten  glass  should  the  tank 
break  down. 


1 


Pot  furnaces  are  generally  rectangular  in  shape,  built  in 
a  manner  similar  to  the  tank  furnace,  bui  resting  on  a  solid 
foundation  of  fireproof  construction ;  these  furnaces  may 
have  capacity  for  twenty  or  more  pots  each ;  each  pot  is  sep¬ 
arately  tilled  with  batch  and  the  melting  is  produced  by  igni¬ 
tion  of  gaseous  fuel  which  circulates  around  the  pots  within 
the  furnace.  Owing  to  the  intense  heat  (2700’  F.)  generated 
in  the  pot  furnace,  it  becomes  necessary  to  rebuild  them  about 
every  three  months,  hence  one  or  more  furnaces  may  be  under 
repair  at  any  time. 

The'  floor  surrounding  a  pot  furnace  should  be  of  fire¬ 
proof  construction  for  a  distance  of  at  least  twenty  feet  in 
all  directions,  in  order  to  prevent  ignition  of  combustibles  in 
case  a  pot  of  metal  should  be  ruptured  while  being  handled. 

In  tank  furnaces  the  batch  is  fed  in  at  one  end,  and  as 
the  molten  glass  is  removed  for  casting,  fresh  portions  of  the 
batch  are  added.  These  tanks  may  be  of  the  continuous  type 
in  which  the  melting  of  batch  continues  day  and  night  through 
the  whole  season  or  fire,  or  until  the  tank  needs  rebuilding, 
and  the  day  tank,  in  which  the  melting  is  carried  on  during 
the  night,  the  metal  being  withdrawn  for  casting  during  the 
day  working  hours  only. 

The  working  floor  for  at  least  twenty  feet  on  all  sides 
of  a  tank  furnace  should  be  of  fireproof  construction  with 
fireproof  supports.  The  floor  at  and  around  the  base  of  the 
tank  foundation  should  also  be  of  fireproof  character  to  the 
same  extent  to  prevent  possible  ignition  of  combustibles  in 
case  of  molten  metal  escaping  from  a  ruptured  tank.  The 
omission  of  fireproofing  around  both  pot  and  tank  furnaces 
as  suggested  creates  a  hazard  not  to  be  overlooked. 

Process  Methods. — Where  pot  furnaces  are  used  for 
melting,  the  pots  are  set  in  the  furnace  while  empty  and  given 
a  preliminary  heating  by  coal  fires  or  gas  flame  to  temper 
them  for  receiving  the  batch  without  danger  of  rupture,  each 
pot  then  being  charged  while  in  place  and  subjected  to  grad¬ 
ually  increased  temperature  until  the  batch  becomes  fluid. 

In  this  class  of  furnace  the  breaking  down  or  rupture 
of  a  pot  inside  of  the  furnace  would  not  produce  any  partic¬ 
ular  fire  hazard  as  the  molten  metal  would  be  held  within  the 
furnace  walls. 

Where  tank  furnaces  are  used  the  tank  undergoes  a  like 
preliminary  heating  to  prepare  it  for  the  reception  of  the 
batch,  which  is  rendered  fluid  by  the  use  of  gas  flame  in¬ 
tensified  by  passing  through  a  regenerative  furnace.  The 
rupture  or  breaking  down  of  a  tank  would  permit  the  escape 
of  large  quantities  of  molten  metal  which  would  readily  ignite 
combustibles  with  which  it  might  come  into  contact,  hence, 
the  necessity  for  fireproofing  the  surroundings  of  the  tank 
and  the  provision  of  a  bridge  or  dam  in  tunnels  near  the  cave 
becomes  evident  as  an  essential  precaution. 


Casting  Plates. — The  pots  containing  the  molten  metal 
are  removed  from  the  melting  furnace  by  balanced  tongs  sup¬ 
ported  on  a  trolley  track,  and  may  be  transferred  manually 
or  by  power  to  the  “casting  hall”  which  communicates  with 
the  furnace  room ;  the  fluid  glass  is  poured  upon  an  iron  table, 
the  sides  of  which  are  raised  to  the  thickness  gauge  of  the 
sheet  to  be  produced,  and  the  mass  is  flattened  by  passing 
over  it  a  heavy  iron  roller  supported  on  the  raised  edge  of 
the  table. 

Where  tank  furnaces  are  used  the  molten  glass  is  dipped 
out  of  the  mass  by  ladles  and  transferred  to  the  casting  tables 
on  trolley  track.  When  cast  and  rolled  the  rough  plate  passes 
from  the  table  either  to  a  lehr  or  kiln  for  annealing. 

Annealing  or  Tempering. — Under  older  practice  the 
rough  plates  pass  from  the  casting  table  to  a  gas  heated  an¬ 
nealing  kiln  built  of  brick  and  lined  with  refractory  material, 
each  kiln  having  capacity  for  three  plates ;  the  plates  enter 
the  kilns  at  a  bright  cherry  red  heat,  the  kilns  then  being 
closed,  the  heat  being  continued  at  reducing  temperature  for 
periods  ranging  from  72  to  96  hours,  when  the  plate  may  be 
handled  for  removal  to  the  “grinding  hall.” 

Some  plants  of  this  older  class  may  still  be  in  service 
where  operators  adhere  to  the  mistaken  idea  that  kiln  temper¬ 
ing  is  the  only  means  by  which  the'  homogeneity  in  temper 
of  the  plate  can  be  secured  to  prevent  rupture  under  changes 
of  temperature  when  finished  and  set,  but  the  fallacy  of  this 
contention  is  proven  by  the'  fact  that  all  modern  and  success¬ 
ful  plants  of  the  class  are  now  equipped  with  lehrs  for  an¬ 
nealing;  these  devices  are  built  of  brick  with  flat  or  arched 
tops  and  are  heated  by  gas  flames  located  at  stated  intervals 
within  their  length  of  several  hundred  feet ;  the  cherry  red 
plate  passes  from  the  casting  table  to  a  hot  chamber  at  the 
head  of  the  lehr,  and  when  at  the  right  temperature  passes 
to  a  travelling  metal  apron  which  is  mechanically  progressed 
through  the  length  of  the  lehr  while  exposed  to  gradually 
decreasing  temperature  until  it  reaches  the  delivery  or  “take¬ 
off”  end  cool  enough  to  be  handled. 

The  use  of  lehrs  for  tempering  serves  to  materially  re¬ 
duce  the  fire  hazard  due  to  the  numerous  fire  heated  kilns 
incident  to  the  older  practice  of  annealing. 

Grinding  Rough  Plate. — The  plates  leaving  the  lehr  or 
tempering  kiln  are  embedded  in  plaster  of  Paris  on  the  surface 
of  large  horizontal  rotating  tables,  over  which  a  series  of 
grinding  devices  are  rotated  in  contrary  direction,  the  abradant 
being  sharp  sand  of  three  or  four  grades  of  fineness,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  three  graded  sizes  of  emery;  in  each  grinding 
process  an  abundance  of  water  is  used  on  the  surface  of  the 
plate  to  facilitate  grinding  and  carry  off  the  worn  abradant 
as  each  grade  is  replaced  by  that  of  lesser  sized  grain. 


3 


While  this  abundant  use  of  water  serves  to  keep  imme¬ 
diate  surroundings  constantly  wet  at  vicinity  of  the  grinding 
tables,  the  necessarily  immense  areas  of  these  “grinding 
halls”  presents  a  difficult  problem  in  the  control  of  fire  once 
gaining  headway  in  the  roof  or  other  combustible  portions 
of  the  structure,  hence  it  becomes  exigent  to  provide  for  the 
use  of  fire  resistive  material  in  construction  and  roofing  of 
these  buildings,  such  as  appears  to  be  the  general  practice 
in  modern  plants,  where  the  large'  areas  call  for  substantial 
brick  or  concrete  enclosing  walls  for  support  of  structural 
steel  roofing  and  upper  works. 

Polishing  Ground  Plate. — This  process  is  quite  similar 
to  that  of  grinding,  an  abundance  of  flowing  water  being  used 
at  the  tables ;  the  abradant  or  polishing  substance  is  rouge 
(peroxide  of  iron)  which  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
plate ;  the  polish  is  secured  through  the  rotary  action  of  cloth 
or  felt  covered  pads,  which  rub  the  abradant  over  the  face 
of  the  plate.  French,  English  and  American  polishing  devices 
are  found  in  use,  either  in  combination  or  singly.  Some  hand 
polishing  is  done  for  higher  finish  when  plates  have  been  cut 
to  dimensions  for  the  trade.  “Polishing  halls”  are  also  nec¬ 
essarily  of  very  large  area,  and  in  matter  of  construction 
should  conform  to  the  suggestions  made  in  relation  to  grind¬ 
ing  halls. 

While  the  materials  used  in  grinding  and  polishing  proc¬ 
esses  are  non-combustible  in  their  raw  state,  some  compar¬ 
atively  mild  hazards  are  created  through  the  presence  of  heat 
producing  devices  necessary  for  preparing  the  material  for 
use,  in  that  rouge  is  burned  in  a  brick  arched  furnace  using 
coal  fire  or  gas  flame  for  heat ;  sand  is  dried  in  a  rotating  iron 
cylinder  with  direct  fire  heat  and  the  hard  plaster,  after  re¬ 
moval  from  the  grinding  and  polishing  tables,  is  dried  at  a 
moderate  heat  in  brick  furnaces,  while  the  grinding  of  gypsum 
and  hard  plaster  may  present  some  slight  hazard  due  to  pos¬ 
sible  heat  from  friction  at  the  bearings  of  the  mills. 

Danger  from  the  presence  and  use  of  any  of  these  devices 
can  best  be  avoided  by  freeing  them  from  contact  with  or 
dangerous  proximity  to  combustible  material  of  all  kinds. 

The  process  hazards  incident  to  the  production  of  rolled 
and  cathedral  glass  are  identical  with  those  of  plate'  glass 
except  in  the  matter  of  finishing  the'  cast  material.  Rolled 
Glass  is  usually  cast  rough,  and  after  leaving  the  lehr  or  tem¬ 
pering  oven,  is  sorted,  cut  to  dimensions  and  packed  for 
shipping ;  such  ornamentation  in  design  as  may  be  desired 
being  secured  during  the  process  of  casting  and  rolling. 

Cathedral  Glass  is  usually  cast  in  rough  finish,  the  plates 
being  both  less  in  thickness  and  surface  area  than  either  rolled 
or  plate  glass.  Opalescent  glass  is  produced  from  a  batch 
containing  cryolite  and  is  generally  cast  into  sheets  of  various 
thickness  on  tables  of  medium  size.  This  material  is  used 


for  making  tile,  linings  for  ice  chests,  table  tops  and  in  com¬ 
bination  with  cathedral  glass  for  decorative  purposes.  Grind¬ 
ing  and  polishing  of  these  various  sized  units  is  usually  ac¬ 
complished  on  tables  of  comparatively  small  size’. 

Wire  Glass  is  produced  by  processes  similar  to  those 
incident  to  rolled  glass,  the  introduction  of  the  wire  reinforce¬ 
ment  within  the  body  of  the  molten  glass  being  accomplished 
by  two  different  methods ;  in  solid  wire  glass  the  wire  mesh 
is  firmly  stretched  over  the  casting  table  bed  in  position  to 
leave  an  under-space  equal  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the 
plate,  and  the  molten  glass  is  poured  over  it  and  rolled,  thus 
forming  a  solid  plate1;  in  making  so-called  “sandwich”  wire 
glass  the  metal  is  poured  onto  the  casting  table  to  a  depth 
equal  to  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  and  while  still  in 
fluid  state  the  wire  mesh  is  stretched  over  it,  and  additional 
metal  poured  to  the  desired  thickness  and  the  mass  is  then 
rolled  and  passed  to  the  lehr  or  annealing  oven.  Various  or¬ 
namental  or  other  designs  are  impressed  upon  the  surface  of 
the  plate  from  patterns  cut  into  the  bed  of  the  casting  table' 
or  on  the  surface  of  its  roller.  Grinding  and  polishing  of 
wire  glass  plate  is  performed  by  the  same  method  as  in  the 
case  of  plate  glass. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  here  that  all  grades  of  polished 
glass,  when  packed,  are  subject  to  take  on  almost  indelible 
surface  stains  by  the  deposition  of  coloring  matter  from  wet 
packing  material,  and  the  corrosive  action  of  smoke  in  case 
of  fire.  These  stains  are  said  to  become  absolutely  indelible 
unless  the  plate  is  removed  from  its  package,  carefully  washed 
and  properly  handled  within  two  weeks  after  the  damage 
occurs. 

Pot  Making. — Practically  all  plants  of  this  class  make 
their  own  melting  pots  where  such  are  used,  and  where  tank 
furnaces  are  operated  the  blocks  and  other  shapes  forming 
the  melting  tank  structure  may  be  produced,  usually  in  sep¬ 
arate  structures  on  the  premises.  The’  raw  stock  used  in  the 
production  of  both  pots  and  blocks  or  other  tank  shapes  con¬ 
sists  of  a  mixture  of  special  grades  of  clay,  which  after  being 
washed  are  mixed  in  a  pug  mill  and  the  mass  is  then  packed 
into  bins,  where  it  may  remain  for  six  or  more1  months  for 
tempering. 

When  properly  tempered  the  clay  is  mixed  with  other 
refractory  material  including  portions  of  finely  ground  old 
pot  shells  and  tank  blocks,  the  whole  being  again  intimately 
mixed  and  formed  into  the  required  shapes. 

Pots  are  slowly  built  up  by  skilled  hand  operators,  re¬ 
quiring  considerable  time  for  completion,  and  are  then  left 
to  season  for  from  six  to  eight  months  subject  during  that 
period  to  the  drying  effect  of  normal  temperature  in  summer 
and  to  mild  artificial  heat  produced  by  open  gas  flame  or  low 
pressure  steam  during  cold  weather.  Where  gas  is  used  in 


5 


the  drying  process,  the  flame  is  usually  an  open  one  of  the 
“jumbo”  or  flambeau  type,  necessitating  the  protection  of 
exposed  wood-work  and  other  combustible  material  against 
ignition  by  these  large  flames. 

The  green  pots  when  fully  seasoned  are  burned  in  a  “pot 
oven"  constructed  of  brick  with  arched  tops,  heated  by  gas 
flame  or  coal  fuel ;  these  ovens  are  usually  located  inside  of 
or  contiguous  to  the  casting  hall,  though  sometimes  to  be 
found  near  the  pot  shop ;  as  a  general  rule  these  ovens  are  of 
inferior  construction  and  should  be  so  located  as  to  prevent 
exposure  to  or  contact  with  combustible  material. 

The  fire  hazard  of  a  pot  shop  is  very  mild,  the  principal 
danger  being  in  the  use  of  open  gas  flames  for  drying  pur¬ 
poses,  and  in  non-enforcement  of  restrictions  in  regard  to 
smoking  by  the  employees.  As  the  average  life  of  a  pot 
while  in  service  seldom  exceeds  six  weeks,  a  large  reserve 
stock  of  green  ware  is  usually  found  in  the  pot  shop  dry 
rooms,  and  at  this  stage  of  making  they  are  more  susceptible 
to  damage  by  water  than  by  fire. 

Box  and  Crate  Making. — The  box  or  carpenter  shop 
usual  to  this  class  of  works  is  frequently  of  large  area,  gen¬ 
erally  communicating  with  the  packing  and  shipping  rooms 
without  proper  cut-offs  between.  The  use  of  steam  or  electric 
power  machinery  is  common,  and  large  quantities  of  box  or 
crating  lumber  are  usually  kept  inside  of  the  structure ;  as 
these  conditions  present  the  hazards  usual  to  power  wood¬ 
working  establishments,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  daily  removal  of  combustible  waste  material  which  ac¬ 
cumulates  about  the  machines  and  benches. 

Packing  and  Shipping. — Packing  and  shipping  rooms 
are  usually  of  large  area,  and  as  a  matter  of  convenience  in 
handling  the  finished  plate  are  connected  to  the  polishing 
hall,  generally  without  protection  at  points  of  communication. 
Large  quantities  of  straw,  hay  and  other  combustible  mate¬ 
rials  are  kept  in  stock  and  used  in  packing  rooms,  entailing 
large  accumulations  of  combustible  rubbish  in  such  localities. 
All  such  packing  material  should  be  kept  in  covered  bins 
restricted  in  capacity  to  the  amount  required  for  the  day’s 
use,  and  accumulations  of  refuse  should  be  removed  from 
the  premises  each  night. 

As  the  box  shop,  packing  and  shipping  rooms  form  the 
most  serious  fire  hazard  in  plate  glass  works,  it  is  urgently 
suggested  that  such  departments  be  equipped  with  automatic 
sprinklers  for  prompt  protection  in  case  of  fire,  to  prevent  its 
spread  to  other  portions  of  the  plant  not  separated  from  them 
by  fire  walls  and  fire  doors. 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  as  a  whole,  the  hazards 
of  this  class  of  glass  production  are  decidedly  mild  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  process  method  incident  to  the  production  of 


=1 


glassware  in  general,  as  shown  in  my  monograph  on  “Glass 
Works  other  than  Plate  and  Window  Glass.” 

The  use  of  lehrs  in  tempering  plate  glass  as  practiced 
in  the  more  modern  plants  serves  to  reduce  the  general  fire 
hazard  of  the  class  by  the  elimination  of  many  heat  producing 
devices  necessary  in  tempering  where  ovens  are  used  for  that 
purpose,  and  it  may  also  be  safe  to  assume  that  these  more 
modern  installations  promise  larger  commercial  success  in 
operation  than  is  possible  under  the  more  antiquated  meth¬ 
ods,  as  the  equipment  of  these  plants  necessitates  large 
financial  investment  and  the  exercise  of  superior  management 
to  insure  profitable  operation  under  the  keen  competition  evi¬ 
denced  in  this  important  industry. 

*  • 


New  York,  July,  1915. 


7 


' 


Glass  Works 

other  than 

Plate  or  Window 

Glass 


GsiE) 

l^J 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


11 

12 


Glass  Works  in  General 

Other  Than 

Plate  or  Window  Glass 


In  considering  the  hazards  incident  to  the  production  of 
blown,  pressed  and  moulded  glass  ware,  it  is  attempted  to 
group  the  various  processes  into  two  classes,  as  indicative  of 
the  comparative  fire  hazards  of  each. 

Blown  Ware. — Including  all  kinds  of  bottles,  milk,  condiment 
and  preserve  jars,  lamp  chimneys,  globes  and  electric 
light  bulbs,  special  designs  and  irregular  work  con¬ 
tainers. 

Pressed  and  Moulded  Ware. — Including  tumblers,  bowls, 
table-ware,  wines,  bar  goods,  stem  ware,  blanks  for 
cut  glass,  founts  for  oil  lamps,  specialty  and  novelty 
ware. 

In  the  production  of  blown  ware  the  use  of  automatic  or 
semi-automatic  blowing  machines  has  become  very  general, 
though  in  some  instances  both  off-hand  and  machine  blowing 
are  to  be  found  in  same  plant. 

In  moulded,  pressed  and  cut  glass  plants  hand  power 
operations  prevail,  such  machines  or  devices  as  may  be  used 
not  being  designed  for  either  automatic  or  semi-automatic 
operation. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  that  in  some  instances  it  may  be 
found  that  several  of  the  classes  above  indicated  are  included 
in  the  output  of  a  single  plant,  and  it  may  be  further  assumed 
that,  where  the  product  of  any  glass  plant  includes  a  variety 
of  articles,  that  the  fire  hazard  is  proportionately  increased 
over  those  in  which  a  single  or  selected  class  of  work  is 
produced,  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  processes  not 
incident  to  glass  working  per  se,  such  as  decorating,  lacquer¬ 
ing,  buffing  of  metal  work,  and  the  presence  and  use  of  a 
much  larger  quantity  and  variety  of  packing  material  in  the 
mixed  product  house. 


1 


The  Raw  Stock  used  varies  with  the  class  of  goods 
produced  and  ranges  from  a  simple  batch  mixture  of  sand, 
air-slaked  lime,  crushed  limestone,  soda  ash  or  nitre  or  pot¬ 
ash,  with  manganese  or  antimony  for  coloring  in  the  bottle 
works  to  a  combination  of  the  above  with  cryolite,  feldspar, 
fluorspar,  lead  or  zinc  oxides,  sulphur,  carbon  (ground  can- 
nel  or  bituminous  coal),  and  arsenic,  in  works  covering  a 
wider  range  of  product. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  none  of  these  raw  materials,  except 
carbon,  lime,  nitre  and  sulphur,  present  inherent  Are  hazard, 
while  lime  and  carbon  may  be  assumed  to  promote  the  pos¬ 
sibility  of  spontaneous  ignition  under  certain  conditions ;  nitre 
and  sulphur  are  without  particular  hazard  when  not  in  com¬ 
bination  with  other  material  not  usual  to  this  class  of  manu¬ 
facture,  but  each  of  these  materials,  when  fused  under  the 
action  of  heat,  would  add  to  the  intensity  of  combustion ; 
sulphur  when  ignited  will  produce  sufficient  heat  to  set  fire 
to  woodwork  or  other  combustibles,  but  the  fumes  arising 
from  its  combustion,  if  confined,  would  tend  to  retard  the 
spread  of  flame ;  the  ignition  of  nitre  would  serve  to  aggra¬ 
vate  combustion  of  other  material  by  the  liberation  of  its 
oxygen,  and,  when  in  contact  with  sulphur  and  carbon,  might 
produce  a  combination  promoting  an  explosion  of  some 
violence ;  but  as  each  of  these  materials  is  usually  stored  sep¬ 
arately  until  mixed  in  the  “batch,”  the  probability  of  an 
explosion  appears  to  be  remote  under  ordinary  practice,  and 
may  therefore  be  neglected  in  the  summing  up. 

Cryolite,  a  double  fluoride  of  sodium  and  aluminum,  is 
said  to  be  the  most  costly  of  the  raw  material  used  in  the 
production  of  glass  in  the  processes  under  consideration.  Its 
principal  use  is  in  the  production  of  “opal”  or  “opalescent” 
glass,  and  owing  to  the  development  of  fluosilicic  acid  during 
the  process  of  fusion,  it  is  liable  to  break  down  or  disintegrate 
the  melting  tank  or  pots,  and  thus  permit  the  escape  of  the 
molten  metal,  and  perhaps  cause  a  fire.  It  is  to  be  presumed 
that  manufacturers  understand  this  condition  and  provide 
against  accident  from  it.  The  inquiry  should  be  made. 

Raw  Stock  Process  Hazards. — The  preparation  of  raw 
stock,  as  grinding,  screening  and  mixing,  presents  only  mild 
hazards,  and  where  the  grinding  and  other  mechanical  devices 
are  kept  free  from  contact  with  woodwork  or  other  com¬ 
bustible  material,  there  appears  to  be  little  danger  of  fire 
from  friction  or  sparks  possible  of  production  in  operation. 

Melting  Furnaces  are  of  several  class,  i.  e.,  “continuous 
tank,”  in  which  the  “batch”  is  fed  into  one  end  and  when 
melted  is  “gathered”  at  the  other  by  off-hand  blowers  or  by 
automatic  machines,  the  process  being  continuous  night  and 
day,  during  the  “fire,”  or  until  accident  compels  shut  down. 
“Day  tanks,”  in  which  charging  with  batch  is  done  at  night, 
and  the  melting  continued  until  the  day-shift  comes  on,  the 
“gathering”  being  carried  on  during  the  day  hours  only. 


These  tank  furnaces  are  usually  rectangular  in  shape, 
with  interior  construction  of  fireclay  blocks  and  brick  with 
an  arched  crown  and  a  “down  draught”  flue ;  they  are  heated 
by  natural  or  producer  gas  flame,  intensified  by  passage 
through  a  regenerative  furnace,  and  are  generally  supported 
on  brick  arches  and  piers,  and  as  the  temperature  used  in 
melting  the  batch  reaches  some  2,600  degrees  Fahrenheit  the 
structure  should  be  well  removed  from  contact  with  woodwork 
and  combustibles.  Batch  is  fed  to  these  furnaces  by  hand 
as  a  rule,  but  where  a  chute  is  used,  the  material  of  same 
should  be  non-combustible. 

Where  melting  is  done  in  pots  the  furnaces  are  usually 
circular  in  form,  with  an  inside  lining,  bench  and  crown  of 
fire-clay  blocks  and  brick,  and  an  outside  brick  enclosure 
tapering  above  the  crown  to  form  a  stack  or  chimney,  as  in 
a  pottery  kiln.  The  foundations  of  this  class  of  furnace  are 
usually  of  brick,  from  8  to  12  feet  in  thickness,  with  brick 
arched  “cave”  or  tunnel  underneath,  but,  as  a  rule,  these 
walls  are  to  be  found  in  contact  with  floor  beams  and  other 
woodwork,  and  while  it  is  true  that  some  of  these  furnaces 
have  been  in  use  for  thirty  or  more  years  without  firing  the 
woodwork,  the  conditions  do  not  appear  to  warrant  continued 
immunity  in  this  respect. 

Generation  of  heat  in  this  class  of  furnace  is  secured  by 
the  combustion  of  natural  or  producer  gas,  or  a  combination 
of  the  two,  either  by  direct  flame  or  through  regenerative 
furnaces.  It  is  claimed  by  some  glass  manufacturers  that  the 
use  of  regenerators  in  a  pot  furnace  has  a  tendency  to  break 
down  the  pots  from  the  intensity  of  the  flame,  and  thus  permit 
the  escape  of  the  molten  glass  into  the  tunnel  or  “cave”  and 
create  a  fire.  Some  of  these  furnaces  are  constructed  to  burn 
bituminous  coal,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  natural 
gas,  when  the  latter  commodity  is  low,  but  in  either  case  the 
fire  hazard  is  practically  identical. 

Some  pot  furnaces  are  rectangular  in  shape,  of  the  same 
general  construction  as  above,  but  are  usually  provided  with 
down-draft  flues,  for  the  escape  of  the  products  of  com¬ 
bustion. 

The  working  floors  surrounding  tank  or  pot  furnaces 
should  be  of  brick  or  concrete  on  fire-proofed  supports  for 
a  distance  of  at  least  twenty  feet  in  all  directions,  and  the 
floor  at  and  around  the  base  of  the  furnace  should  be  of  earth 
or  fire-proofed. 

The  “cave”  or  open  space  immediately  under  the  bench 
of  both  tank  and  pot  furnaces  should  be  provided  with  a  brick 
bridge  or  dam,  not  less  than  two  feet  in  height  at  the  tunnel 
or  passageway  through  the  supporting  walls  of  the  furnace, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  molten  metal  should  pot  or 
tank  break  down  when  heat  is  on. 


3 


Glory  Holes  are  usually  constructed  in  form  similar  to 
the  circular  pot  furnace,  but  of  smaller  diameter,  and  are  fired 
by  an  open  gas  flame  located  about  “waist  high”  above  the 
foundation,  which  thus  does  not  convey  much  heat  down¬ 
ward.  These  devices  are  frequently  found  built  up  from  the 
floor  as  a  foundation,  but  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  sup¬ 
porting  walls  rise  from  the  ground,  and  be  free  from  contact 
with  combustible  material. 

The  use  of  fuel  oil  in  these  devices  is  an  occasional  prac¬ 
tice,  and  when  the  method  of  feeding  the  oil  to  the  furnace 
complies  with  accepted  rules,  there  is  practically  no  increase 
of  hazard  over  that  incident  to  the  use  of  gaseous  fuel. 

Annealing  or  Tempering  Furnaces  are  of  two  classes, 
either  “ovens”  or  “lehrs,”  the  former  usually  of  small  or 
medium  size,  arranged  in  a  series  of  three  or  four  adjoining, 
constructed  of  brick  with  fire-clay  or  fire-brick  lining,  heated 
by  open  gas  flames  about  “waist  high”  above  foundation,  in 
arrangement  something  like  a  baker’s  oven,  into  which  the 
hot  glassware  is  introduced  by  hand  and  removed  from  one 
oven  to  the  other,  each  being  heated  at  a  reduction  in  tem¬ 
perature  to  perfect  annealing  without  rupture.  Like  the  glory 
holes,  these  devices  are  found  with  foundations  resting  on  the 
floor,  and,  in  addition,  are  frequently  carelessly  arranged  in 
relation  to  contact  with  woodwork  and  fender  boards. 

The  lehr  is  constructed  with  brick  walls  and  a  flat  arched 
brick  top,  and,  is  heated  by  open  gas  flames  for  about  two- 
thirds  of  length,  the  highest  temperature  being  a  cherry-red 
heat  at  the  receiving  end,  reducing  to  practically  “nil”  in 
temperature  at  the  delivery  end.  The  hot  ware  from  the 
blowing  stand  or  automatic  machine  is  placed  by  hand  on 
iron  trays  at  the  receiving  end,  and  the  filled  trays  are  slowly 
progressed  through  the  length  of  the  lehr  on  an  endless  chain- 
conveyor  to  the  delivery  end,  whence  the  ware  is  removed 
practically  cool.  In  the  older  style  of  lehr  the  operation  of 
manipulation  is  manual,  the  receiver  at  the  delivery  end  ad¬ 
vancing  the  conveyor  by  hand-lever  a  sufficient  distance  for 
the  removal  of  a  tray  of  cooled  ware,  while  a  new  tray  is  being 
placed  in  the  receiving  end.  In  the  more  modern  device  the 
operation  is  automatic,  the  hot  ware  being  delivered  to  the 
receiving  end  by  a  mechanical  trolley-carrier  connected  with 
the  blowing-stand  of  an  automatic  machine  and  the  loaded 
trays  are  slowly  progressed  by  mechanical  means  to  the 
delivery. 

This  automatic  lehr  is  not  only  in  the  line  of  economy 
of  operation,  but  also  serves  to  lessen  the  fire  hazard,  as  by 
its  use  the  services  of  the  “carrier-in”  boys  are  dispensed  with. 
It  is  evident  that  both  classes  of  annealing  devices  should 
be  substantially  constructed  with  foundations  on  the  ground, 
and  be  kept  free  from  contact  with  combustibles,  including 
such  material  as  is  frequently  found  piled  on  top  of  the  arches 
of  both  lehrs  and  owens. 


4 


Pot  Arches  are  constructed  of  brick  with  fire-clay  or  fire¬ 
brick  lining  with  flat  arched  tops,  and  heated  by  open  gas 
flame;  they  are  used  for  the  preliminary  heating  of  the  pots 
before  placing  them  in  the  melting  furnace,  where  they  are 
then  charged  with  the  “batch” ;  in  order  to  transfer  the  heated 
pots  from  the  arch  to  the  furnace'  with  the  least  probability 
of  rupture  from  cooling,  the  arch  must  be  located  adjacent 
to  the  furnaces,  hence  they  are  frequently  constructed  as  an 
addition  to  the  melting  house,  and  not  infrequently  are  care¬ 
lessly  arranged  as  to  exposed  woodwork,  thus  creating  an 
f  )  aggravated  fire  hazard  which  could  be  avoided  by  more  care¬ 

ful  construction  and  arrangement. 

Pot  Making  carries  with  it  but  little  fire  hazard  unless" 
old  pot  shells  are  ground  up  in  the  premise's,  and  in  that  case 
the  principal  hazard  would  arise  from  the  friction  of  machin¬ 
ery  when  in  contact  with  combustible  material.  Pots  are  made 
from  special  qualities  of  ball  and  plastic  fireclays,  both  of 
foreign  and  domestic  character,  and  are  slowly  formed  from 
moistened  clay  by  hand  manipulation,  are  dried  without  the 
aid  of  artificial  heat  in  summer,  and  at  a  temperature  of  not 
over  75  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  winter.  Most  if  not  all  pot 
house  fires  have'  been  traced  to  carelessness  in  smoking  by 
the  hands  employed.  As  a  rule,  the  pots  for  use  in  the  classes 
under  present  consideration  come  to  the  works  finished  and 
ready  for  heating  in  the  pot  arch. 

Burning  or  Decorating  Kilns  for  ware  are  similar  to 
those  used  in  potteries  for  the  same  purpose,  except  that 
“saggers”  are  not  used ;  they  are  usually  constructed  of  brick, 
with  flat  or  arched  tops  of  iron  or  brick,  and  are  provided 
with  a  series  of  metal  shelves  upon  which  the  ware  is  placed 
for  burning  in  the  colors.  Natural  or  producer  gas  flame  is 
used  for  heat,  but  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  a  degree 
which  will  fuse  only  the  metallic  oxides  in  the  decoration  and 
not  affect  the  surface  of  the  glass.  These  kilns  are  usually 
grouped  in  series  of  three  or  more,  and  should  be  securely 
separated  from  the  decorating  department,  and  be  constructed 
without  contact  with  wood  or  other  combustibles.  There  are 
also  in  use  burning  kilns  constructed  like  lehrs,  and  these 
should  be  treated  as  previously  suggested  under  the  heading 
“Annealing.” 

Producer  Gas  installations  are  now  in  general  use  as 
constant  sources  of  gaseous  fuel  supply,  or  in  supplement  to 
*  1  natural  gas  where  the  latter  is  weak  or  irregular  in  volume 

and  pressure. 

This  class  of  apparatus  is  composed  of  a  series  of  vertical 
cast  or  wrought  iron  cylinders  into  which  bituminous  coal  is 
fed  and  burned  under  conditions  which  prevent  free  circula¬ 
tion  of  air  in  the  combustion  chambers,  the  operation  being 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  producing  ordniary  coal  gas,  but 
the  heat  evolved  is  not  so  intense,  and  the  gas  is  used  without 


5 


being  first  purified  by  water  scrubbing  and  desulphurizing. 
The  hazard  is  nominal,  as  the  producers  are  usually  simply 
sheltered  by  a  roof  of  metal  on  metal  supports. 

Decorating. — This  class  of  work  is  found  where  oil  lamps, 
lamp  globes  and  shades,  variety  or  novelty  work  is  produced, 
and  may  range  from  gilding  or  other  light  ornamentation, 
entailing  no  particular  fire  hazard,  to  general  decorative  work 
by  hand  painting,  decalcomania  transfer,  and/or  stencil- work, 
the  colors  used  being  metallic  oxides,  thinned  with  turpentine, 
but  in  some  instances  it  may  be  found  that  shading  and  tinting 
of  the  ware  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  colors  held  in  solu¬ 
tion  in  benzine  or  naphtha,  sprayed  upon  the  surface  by  an 
atomizer  operating  under  air  pressure,  the  flexible  tubing 
connecting  the  atomizer  with  the  naphtha  supply  being  of 
rubber,  and  when  in  a  dilapidated  condition  from  use  is  liable 
to  cause  trouble  through  ignition  of  escaping  naphtha  or  its 
vapor  under  constant  air  pressure,  which  is  the  equivalent  of 
gravity  supply. 

It  may  also  be  noted  at  this  point  that  the  edges  of  globes 
and  shades  for  lamps  are  trimmed,  “flashed”  or  squared  by 
the  use  of  a  gasoline  or  naphtha  flame  under  air  pressure,  and 
that  the  bulk  of  the  naphtha  supply  may  be  found  in  a  metal 
receptacle  in  the  cellar  filled  from  the  outside  through  rubber 
tubing.  This  process  is  considered  especially  hazardous  under 
•such  conditions,  and  should  be  made  safe  under  more  modern 
and  approved  methods  of  practice.  This  hazard,  where  found, 
•should  be  very  carefully  scrutinized,  as  it  may  prove  of  suffi¬ 
cient  gravity  to  warrant  declination  of  the  risk. 

Where  oil  lamps,  novelty  or  variety  wares  are  produced, 
metal  parts  or  ornaments  may  also  be  made  or  be  applied, 
thus  creating  hazards  due  to  the  use  of  lacquers  and  processes 
of  buffing  and  polishing  metal  parts.  When  such  process 
methods  are  found  to  exist  careful  investigation  should  be 
made  in  relation  to  the  nature  and  quantity  of  lacquer  and  its 
solvent  in  daily  use  inside  of  premises,  and  as  to  where  the 
bulk  of  such  material  is  stored ;  also  as  to  proper  disposition 
of  the  waste  or  flyings  from  buffing  and  polishing  wheels. 

In  cut  glass  working  the  process  of  producing  designs 
for  cutters  has  in  recent  years  changed  from  the  older  practice 
of  forming  blanks  upon  which  the  designs  were  laid  out  by 
hand  and  developed  on  grinding  or  cutting  wheels  by  skilled 
operators,  to  the  use  of  metal  pattern  dies  which  impress  the 
design  upon  the  heated  metal  while  the  ware  is  being  formed, 
and  this  pressed  ware  is  then  slightly  cut  on  wheels  and  highly 
polished  to  sharpen  and  bring  out  the  design,  thus  materially 
reducing  the  cost  of  production  and  increasing  the  possible 
output. 

It  is  claimed  that  no  cutting  from  blanks  is  now  being 
done  except  on  special  orders.  Such  mechanical  devices  as 
may  be  used  in  producing  cut  glass  are  non-automatic  in  all 
processes,  but  necessitate  employment  of  skilled  operators. 

6 


Packing  and  Shipping. — The  hazards  of  this  branch  of 
the  glass  business  deserves  considerable  attention,  from  the 
fact  that  each  class  of  product  presents  peculiarities  of  its 
own  in  the  nature  and  quantity  of  material  used  for  packing, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  notations : 

Bottles  of  all  kinds,  fruit  and  milk  jars,  are  usually 
shipped  in  slatted  wooden  crates,  either  without  packing  of 
any  kind,  or  with  corrugated  straw-board  strips  between  the 
layers  of  ware,  and  sometimes  with  a  padding  of  straw  or  hay 
at  the  ends  of  the  crate,  thus  presenting  the  minimum  of 
hazard  in  this  branch  of  the  business. 

Tumblers,  lamp  chimneys  and  tableware,  pressed  or 
molded,  are  usually  shipped  in  barrels  or  casks,  and  a  liberal 
quantity  of  hay,  straw,  excelsior  and  paper  is  used  in  packing, 
averaging  two  days  supply  in  the  packing  room,  with  the  bulk 
of  such  material  kept  on  the  premises  in  more  or  less  remote 
and  separated  structures. 

Lamp,  variety  and  novelty  ware  plants  use  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  the  same  packing*  material  as  do  tumbler  works,  and 
ship  their  wares  in  barrels  and  casks,  and  average  about  the 
same  conditions  as  to  packing  room  and  reserve  supply  of 
material  for  packing. 

Warehouses  are  usually  of  large  area,  some  of  them 
immense,  with  stocks  piled  high  in  wooden  or  fibre  cases  and 
crates  where  bottle  or  similar  stock  is  concerned,  but  in  these 
instances  without  other  inflammable  material  exposed ;  the 
storage  of  tumbler  and  table-ware  is  generally  confined  to 
goods  in  closed  casks  and  barrels,  mostly  on  ends  ;  lamp,  elec¬ 
tric  bulb,  novelty  and  varietv  ware  is  stored  in  closed  pack¬ 
ages,  and  also  in  large  quantity  in  open  racks  or  shelves,  each 
article  being  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  presenting  condi¬ 
tions  for  a  flash-fire  involving  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
material  exposed ;  this  class  of  open  storage  is  to  be  found 
inside  of  the  factory  buildings  as  well  as  in  the  warehouses. 

Box  and  Package  Making  is  generally  without  the  prep¬ 
aration  of  the  raw  stock ;  box  and  crate  shooks  come  in  stand¬ 
ard  sizes,  and  are  nailed  by  hand  or  machine ;  in  some  in¬ 
stances  printing  on  shooks  and  sanding  of  box  ends  is  carried 
on,  and  where  proper  blower  systems  are  attached  to  the 
sanding  devices  and  safety  cans  are  provided  for  benzine  or 
other  detergent  used  for  cleaning  at  presses,  the  hazard  may 
be  considered  as  mild. 

Staves,  headings  and  hoops  for  slack-barrel  making 
reach  the  works  in  bundles  and  are  set  up  or  coopered  on  the 
premises,  usually  in  separated  structures,  but  occasionally 
inside  of  the  main  plants ;  barrel  or  stave-heating  stoves  are 
found  to  average  fair  in  arrangement,  but  this  feature  presents 
a  hazard  warranting  careful  investigation,  as  does  also  the 
matter  of  cleanliness  in  the  cooper  shop. 


7 


The  storage  of  box,  crate  and  barrel  stock  is  usually 
under  cover  of  sheds  or  within  enclosed  structures,  but  where 
such  material  is  piled  in  the  open  and  exposed  to  sparks  from 
locomotive  engines  or  other  sources,  it  presents  an  exposure 
hazard  which  should  be  very  carefully  considered. 

Reviewing  the  fire  hazards  which  may  be  assumed  as 
being  incident  or  inherent  to  any  of  the  classes  of  glass  works 
above  treated,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  worst  of  such 
hazards  might  not  be  materially  reduced,  if  not  entirely  elimi¬ 
nated  by  proper  foresight  and  exercise  of  good  judgment  in 
construction,  arrangement  of  processes  and  in  management 
supervision,  the  measure  in  which  these  essential  conditions 
appear  to  be  complied  with,  should  influence  acceptance  or 
rejection  of  the  hazard  on  inspection. 

In  summary  of  the  hazards  and  present  operative  condi¬ 
tions  in  this  branch  of  the  glass  industry,  as  developed  during 
recent  re-inspection  of  a  large  number  of  plants,  it  may  be 
well  to  state  that  at  the  date  of  the'  first  publication  of  this 
monograph  in  1904,  the  methods  of  glass-ware  production 
were  beginning  to  feel  the  competitive  influence  of  mechanical 
processes  in  substitution  for  hand  labor  in  the  production  of 
bottles  and  other  blown  ware,  through  the  introduction  of 
semi-automatic  machines  producing  so-called  wide-mouthed 
ware,  such  as  milk  and  preserve  jars,  this  device  being  fol¬ 
lowed  later  by  machines  of  such  design  as  to  automatically 
produce  all  grades  of  blown  ware  from  34-ounce  prescription 
vials  up  to  ten-gallon  demi-johns  without  the  aid  of  skilled 
labor  in  any  portion  of  the  operation. 


General  Inspector 


New  York,  July,  1915. 


The  Inspector  and 
the  Insured 

AN  ADDRESS 

DELIVERED  BEFORE  THE  NINETY-FOURTH 

MEETING 

OF 

The  Insurance  Society 

of  New  York 

February  24th,  1914 

BY 

F.  M.  GRISWOLD 

General  Inspector 

(psa) 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


The  Inspector  and  the  Insured 


Mr.  President: 


It  affords  me  much  pleasure  to  respond  to  your  invitation 
to  address  this  Society  on  the  subject  assigned  me,  for,  I 
assume  that  in  an  assemblage  of  this  character  is  to  be  found 
those  whose  presence  is  indicative  of  a  desire  to  profit  by  the 
teachings  that  may  come  to  them  through  the  lectures  and 
addresses  that  are  provided  by  the  Society  for  their  con¬ 
sideration  and  edification,  whereby  the  information  thus  to  be 
gained  may  serve  to  more  fully  fit  its  membership  for  that 
measure  of  success  in  their  profession  which  should  be  the 
reward  of  earnest  effort  in  the  accumulation  of  knowledge 
affecting  a  chosen  line  of  activity. 

In  attempting  to  impart  to  you  my  conception  of  the 
importance  of  the  subject  under  consideration,  I  fear  that 
within  the  time  allotted  it  may  not  be  possible  to  consider 
other  than  the  leading  points  concerning  a  matter  which 
includes  so  wide  a  field  of  essential  knowledge  relative  to  the 


varied  and  intimately  mutual  interests  that  exist  between  the 
insured  and  the  insurer,  the  proper  harmonizing  of  which  so 
often  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  competent  inspector,  whose 
measure  of  success  and  whose  value  to  his  employer,  as  also 
to  the  insured,  largely  depends  upon  a  proper  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  these  interlacing  relations,  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  which  will  enable  him  to  accomplish  best  results 
with  the  least  friction  in  his  intercourse  with  the  aggrega¬ 
tion  of  “the  many  men  of  many  minds”  that  make  up  the 
body  of  the  insuring  public,  to  whom  in  some  instances,  the 
inspector  may  appear  as  an  unwelcome  critic,  if  not  as  an 
intruder. 

In  considering  the  duties  of  an  inspector  as  related  to 
Ids  contact  with  the  insured,  let  me  give  you  an  outline  of 
my  conception  of  the  necessary  mental  equipment  to  fit  him 
for  success  in  that  line  of  endeavor : — primarily  it  may  be 
conceded  that  the  man  who  has  had  a  technical  education 
holds  an  advantage  which  should  enable  him  to  more  rapidly 
advance  in  comprehension  and  accomplishment  than  usually 
falls  to  the  lot  of  one  not  so  endowed,  but  experience  has 


1 


demonstrated  that  such  foundation  is  not  absolutely  essential, 
as  some  have  succeeded  without  it ;  however,  when  technical 
knowledge  and  scientific  attainments  are  secured  through  the 
process  of  abrasion  and  attrition  in  the  hard  school  of  expe¬ 
rience,  the  graduate  has  paid  dearly  for  his  lack  of  earlier 
training. 

Whatever  the  method  of  technical  accomplishment — 
whether  it  be  founded  on  training  in  a  technical  school,  or 
be  the  result  of  later  effort,  the  aspirant  for  success  as  an 
Insurance  Inspector  should  be  somewhat  familiar  with  insur¬ 
ance  practice  and  be  endowed  with  a  broad  complement  of 
common  sense ;  have  an  inquisitive  and  observant  mind 
coupled  with  a  desire  to  investigate  the  “why  and  how”  of 
every  problem ;  a  constantly  receptive  brain,  a  retentive 
memory,  an  insatiable  thirst  for  knowledge,  and  be  possessed 
of  that  higher  faculty  which  will  enable  him  to  be  an  imparter 
of  knowledge,  a  teacher  of  those  less  thoughtful  or  less 
informed,  and  finally,  to  be  imbued  with  such  resourceful 
ingenuity  and  capacity  as  will  fit  him  to  plan  and  carry  out 
the  details  of  technical  propositions  to  a  successful  issue. 

Assuming  that  the  inspector  is  “charged  with  knowl¬ 
edge”  as  well  as  with  the  other  attributes  indicated,  it  seems 
well  to  discover  what  is  meant  to  be  included  in  the  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  word  “inspect” : — the  dictionary  defines  it  to 
be,  “a  critical  examination ;  close  or  careful  survey  or  inves¬ 
tigation  of  something  of  special  moment ;  to  ascertain  by 
examination  the  quality  of  work :” — hence,  an  inspector  is 
“one  whose  duty  it  is  to  secure  by  supervision  proper  per¬ 
formance  of  work,  in  order  to  make  a  formal  report.” 

Elaborating  these  definitions  for  application  to  the  duties 
of  the  insurance  inspector,  let  us  broaden  the  word  “work” 
to  include  in  its  meaning  “condition,”  in  the  sense  that  the 
latter  word  represents  the  result  of  work  performed,  includ¬ 
ing  the  method  and  process  which  produces  the  condition 
creating  and  controlling  the  hazards  to  be  investigated. 
Then,  in  order  to  comply  with  this  broader  interpretation  of 
the  definition,  the  formal  report  to  be  made  by  the  inspector 
must  be  based  upon  the  facts  developed  after  a  critical  survey 
and  examination  of  the  nature  and  condition  of  all  matters 
subject  to  his  investigation. 

Assuming  for  the  purpose  of  illustration  that  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  inspection  is  that  of  a  manufacturing  plant  or  special 
hazard,  it  will  then  become  necessary  to  closely  scrutinize  all 
matters  which  in  any  manner  serve  to  create  or  to  promote 
the  fire  hazard,  including  the  character  and  nature  of  the 
raw  stock  or  material  to  be  used,  following  it  through  all 
processes  of  its  manipulation,  from  its  reception  at  the  plant, 
its  handling  and  storage,  to  the  completion  of  the  operations 
necessary  to  produce  the  finished  goods  or  article,  and  to 
carefully  note  and  define  the  hazards  incident  to  each  stage 
of  progress  where  physical  or  other  changes  affecting  the 

2 


conditions  may  take  place,  and  in  addition  to  these  purely 
technical  investigations  and  conclusions,  to  closely  observe 
and  study  “shop  practice'’  or  management,  including  super¬ 
vision  and  discipline  of  employees,  as  related  to  cleanliness 
and  care  of  hazards  which  form  the  basis  of  “good  house¬ 
keeping,”  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  essentials  in 
securing  safety  from  fire  in  all  classes  of  property. 

The  nature,  means  and  method  of  fire  prevention  prac¬ 
tices  should  be  carefully  investigated;  the  apparatus  and 
appliances  for  fire  protection  or  fire  defence  should  be  very 
critically  examined  and  described ;  and  when  the  assent  and 
co-operation  of  the  insured  can  be  secured,  tests  for  efficiency 
of  such  devices  should  be  undertaken,  but  the  inspector  is 
cautioned  not  to  make  such  tests  on  his  own  initiative  with¬ 
out  permission  and  co-operation.  The  nature  and  condition 
of  the  structures  forming  the  plant  or  risk  require  careful 
consideration  and  full  description,  and  finally,  the  informa¬ 
tion  gained  should  be  embodied  in  a  written  report  of  such 
lucidity  as  to  convey  a  mental  photograph  of  the  hazards  and 
conditions  to  the  minds  of  those  who  have  to  decide  upon 
the  acceptability  of  the  risk  from  an  underwriting  viewpoint. 

I  doubt  not  that  to  some  of  those  present,  even  this 
much  abridged  summary  of  the  primary  duties  of  the  in¬ 
spector  will  appear  arduous  and  difficult  of  accomplishment, 
because  of  the  breadth  of  technical  and  general  knowledge 
necessarily  to  be  attained  in  order  to  comprehend  even  the 
salient  points  of  the  applied  sciences  which  serve  to  create, 
promote  or  control  the  hazards  of  fire  incident  to  business 
practices  in  this  age  of  progress  which  gives  to  us  each  day 
some  new  and  unknown  problem  for  our  study  and  solution 
as  to  its  fire  or  life  hazard. 

However,  none  who  aspires  to  success  need  be  discour¬ 
aged  through  contemplation  of  these  seeming  difficulties,  for 
it  should  be  remembered  that  all  of  the  teachings  of  the  past 
serve  to  admonish  us  that  the  fruition  of  hope  for  advance¬ 
ment  in  knowledge  or  estate,  is  the  result  of  difficulties  over¬ 
come  and  obstacles  surmounted,  and  that  the  road  to  success 
still  remains  open  and  free  to  him  who  persistently  strives 
to  reach  the  goal,  and  he  should  therefore  be  encouraged  to 
persevere,  for,  when  fully  qualified,  the  inspector  stands  on 
a  high  plane  of  usefulness  as  a  conservator  of  public  welfare 
in  matters  affecting  the  hazards  of  life  and  property,  through 
his  fitness  to  act  both  as  mentor  and  guide  to  those  who  have 
not  included  the  science  of  fire  prevention  and  protection  as 
an  essential  in  mental  and  business  training. 

Holding  this  conviction  as  to  the  high  station  of  the 
competent  inspector,  let  us  consider  what  should  be  his 
attitude  in  relation  to  his  contact  with  the  insured  in  mat¬ 
ters  connected  with  his  inspection  work; — primarily,  the 
inspector  should  fully  realize  the  fact  that  “every  man’s 
house  is  his  castle,”  and  therefore  may  not  be  invaded  save 


13 


3 


at  the  pleasure  of  its  owner ;  the  mere  fact  that  an  insurance 
company  has  assumed  a  contingent  liability  on  the  property 
in  the  form  of  an  insurance  policy,  and  therefore  has  a  busi¬ 
ness  interest  in  the  risk,  does  not  carry  with  it  any  right  of 
entry  save  at  the  courtesy  of  its  owner ;  and  when  such  entry 
is  gained,  an  investigation  of  conditions  becomes  a  matter 
of  sufferance,  which  may  be  rescinded  at  the  pleasure  or 
caprice  of  the  owner. 

Therefore,  when  an  inspector  is  called  upon  to  enter  a 
plant  for  the  purpose  of  inspection,  he  should  first  seek  an 
audience  with  the  owner  or  manager,  to  whom  he  should 
exhibit  such  credentials  as  will  prove  him  to  be  authorized 
by  his  employer  to  make  such  inspection,  and  in  a  gentle¬ 
manly  manner  ask  the  privilege  to  make  the  investigation, 
carefully  avoiding  even  the  appearance  of  demanding  an 
entry  as  a  right,  to  the  end  that  this  preliminary  of  introduc¬ 
tion  may  place  the  applicant  for  favor  and  the  insured,  who 
is  to  grant  it,  on  mutual  grounds  of  amicable  courtesy. 

Having  gained  permission  to  make  inspection,  it  is 
always  wise  to  briefly  outline  to  the  proprietor  the  purpose 
of  the  visit,  and  to  give  assurance  that  there  is  no  intention 
to  unduly  pry  into  matters  which  do  not  affect  the  hazard, 
letting  it  be  known  that  where  such  hazards  are  existent  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  insured,  but  not  readily  discoverable 
through  inspection,  the  mutual  interests  of  both  parties  to 
the  contract  are  best  served  when  each  strives  to  be  frank 
with  the  other  in  such  matters. 

Approaching  the  insured  in  this  manner  usually  results 
in  securing  his  confidence  on  the  start,  and  this  condition 
may  be  materially  reinforced  by  personally  discussing  with 
the  insured  conditions  discovered  which  tend  to  create  or  to 
promote  the  fire  hazard,  not  neglecting  to  express  satisfac¬ 
tion  where  the  management  of  the  plant  is  to  be  commended, 
as  a  few  words  of  deserved  compliment  go  far  to  mollify 
antagonism  engendered  through  criticism,  for  in  some  in¬ 
stances  the  insured  may  be  found  disinclined  to  admit  the 
existence  of  defects  cited  by  the  inspector,  basing  his  doubt 
upon  his  assumed  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  his  plant, 
and  in  such  cases  the  position  of  the  inspector  is  materially 
strengthened  by  his  ability  to  point  out  the  defect  in  place, 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  insured  to  make  -plain  the  reasons 
for  suggesting  the  proposed  betterments,  which  should  be 
founded  on  “both  the  law  and  gospels”  of  accepted  practice. 

With  this  thought  in  mind,  I  desire  to  caution  the 
Inspector  against  trusting  to  his  memory  as  to  conditions 
which  need  to  be  corrected,  and  to  suggest  that  a  special 
note  be  made  in  each  case,  indicating  the  nature  of  the  defect 
and  the  locality  in  which  it  was  discovered,  rendering  such 
items  prominent  by  underscoring  them  with  red  or  blue 
pencil,  and  using  such  points  as  his  “texts”  when  in  confer¬ 
ence  with  the  insured  after  an  inspection,  when,  being  sure 


4 


of  his  ground,  the  inspector  should  have  the  courage  of  his 
convictions  and  clean  up  all  criticisms  while  on  the  premises 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  insured.  Do  not  run  away  from 
an  inspection  and  write  to  the  insured  in  relation  to  matters 
which  ought  to  be  disposed  of  during  your  presence  at  the 
plant. 

The  practice  of  “cleaning  up”  as  you  go  will  be  found 
of  particular  value,  when,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
insured  thinks  he  has  a  secret  process,  an  unpatented  machine 
or  method  in  production  in  relation  to  which  he  is  disinclined 
to  permit  investigation  by  an  outsider,  for  in  such  instances 
the  inspector  is  confronted  with  conditions  demanding  the 
exercise  of  consummate  tact  and  diplomacy  to  overcome  the 
suspicions  of  the  insured  that  under  the  cloak  of  inspection, 
he  may  be  harboring*  a  spy  from  one  of  his  rivals  in  trade, 
but  as  no  two  of  such  cases  will  be  found  so  alike  as  to  per¬ 
mit  making  a  fast  and  hard  rule  of  approach,  the  wit  of  the 
inspector  must  prove  his  guide  in  each  case,  but  he  should 
exercise  a  large  measure  of  patience  in  attempting  to  over¬ 
come  the  objections  offered  by  the  insured,  to  whom  it  should 
be  made  plain  that  in  order  to  make  a  report  of  value  irt 
the  case,  the  inspector  must  personally  observe  and  under¬ 
stand  the  hazards  which  may  be  incident  to  the  hidden  proc¬ 
esses,  and  while  willing  to  believe  as  truthful  explanations 
made  by  the  insured,  it  is  impossible  to  know  the  conditions 
without  personal  investigation,  and  in  order  to  fortify  this 
position,  the  inspector  should  obligate  himself  not  to  divulge 
the  information  sought,  and  if  then  permitted  to  investigate, 
he  is  in  duty  bound  to  hold  as  absolutely  inviolate  the  confi¬ 
dence  thus  reposed  in  him  by  the  insured. 

In  case  of  an  absolute  denial  of  opportunity  to  look  into 
the  hazard  of  any  supposed  trade  secret,  the  inspector  must, 
per  force,  choose  between  two'  courses  of  action  in  order  to 
make  an  intelligible  report ; — the  easiest,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  unsatisfactory  decision  would  be  to  attempt 
reaching  an  conclusion  as  to  the  gravity  of  the  unknown 
hazard  by  analogy  predicated  upon  the  nature  of  the  proc¬ 
esses  and  methods  already  developed  by  investigation  of  the 
risk  under  view,  or  from  knowledge  gained  in  like  plants ; 
but  the  safe  and  wiser  course  is  to  take  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt  and  get  off  the  risk,  when  both  argument  and  appeal 
fail  to  convince  the  insured  that  it  is  unwise  to  face  a  con¬ 
tingent  liability  depending  upon  unknown  conditions ;  in 
other  and  more  homely  words,  “never  buy  a  pig  in  a  poke.” 

Another  problem  which  is  difficult  of  solution  to  the 
satisfaction  of  either  the  skilled  inspector  or  the  insured,  is 
the  necessity  for  the  correction  of  improper  conditions 
brought  about  by  the  insistence  of  the  tyro  in  inspection 
work ;  such  for  instance  as  forcing  the  placing  of  fire  doors 
on  each  side  of  a  brick  basement  division  wall,  when  the 
floors  and  superstructure  above  the  wall  were  entirely  of 


5 


wood ;  insistence  upon  the  hanging  of  a  fire  door  at  an  open¬ 
ing  between  a  brick  factory  building  and  its  shed-roofed 
boiler  house,  while  leaving  the  windows  immediately  above 
the  combustible  roof  entirely  unprotected ;  these  two  cases 
are  cited  from  my  personal  experience,  but  many  other  illy 
advised  conditions  might  be  mentioned,  some  of  which 
doubtless  would  be  familiar  to  the  experienced  inspector. 

In  cases  of  this  character,  the  insured  is  more  or  less 
justified  in  claiming  that  if  forced  to  make  changes  and 
improvements  in  accord  with  the  whim  of  every  so-called 
inspector  visiting  his  plant,  his  day  of  trouble  will  never  end, 
but  if  the  inspector  is  properly  equipped  with  knowledge 
and  diplomacy,  he  will  be  able  not  only  to  suggest  the  proper 
remedy,  but  be  skilled  enough  to  demonstrate  the  correct 
method  of  procedure  to  secure  the  desired  results.  A  friendly 
discussion  of  such  matters  with  the  insured  often  brings 
satisfaction  all  around ;  even  if  the  impression  made  does  not 
result  in  immediate  action  for  betterment,  it  is  “seed  well 
planted”  and  will  bear  its  fruit  in  the  future. 

Reflecting  upon  what  has  just  been  said  in  relation  to 
the  difficulty  of  correcting  errors  in  practice,  due  to  the 
ignorance  or  self-sufficiency  of  the  inexperienced  inspector, 
I  am  led  to  caution  you  against  that  false  pride  which  pre¬ 
vents  the  open  acknowledgment  of  ignorance  in  relation  to 
.anything  coming  under  observation,  and  cite  for  your  en¬ 
couragement  that  trite  aphorism  which  admonishes  us  that 
“the  realization  of  ignorance  is  the  foundation  of  wisdom 
Renee,  as  it  is  not  given  to  any  man  . to  know  everything,  the 
wise  inspector,  when  confronted  with  new  and  novel  condi¬ 
tions,  will  evidence  his  wisdom  by  admitting  his  ignorance, 
and  gain  knowledge  by  asking  questions  and  seeking  explana¬ 
tions  as  to  processes,  causes  and  effects  which  may  be  new 
to  him. 

In  my  experience  I  have  found  a  confession  of  ignorance 
of  almost  inestimable  value  under  such  conditions,  and  have 
learned  much  by  throwing  myself  upon  the  generosity  of  the 
insured  for  enlightenment,  finding  them  in  almost  every 
instance  both  willing  and  competent  instructors  when  prop¬ 
erly  approached. 

Unless  the  inspector  is  skilled  enough  to  comprehend 
all  of  the  hazards  incident  to  the  risk  to  be  inspected  without 
assistance  from  those  familiar  with  the  plant,  he  should  seek 
to  be  accompanied  by  the  proprietor,  manager  or  other  per¬ 
son  in  authority  during  his  tour  of  inspection,  in  order  to  be 
enabled  to  point  out  defects  as  developed  and  to  secure 
information  as  to  hazards  and  conditions,  the  nature  of 
which  is  not  self-evident;  when  so  accompanied,  the  inspector 
should  realize  that  the  absence  of  his  guide  from  regular 
duties  must  entail  expense  upon  the  insured,  but  at  the  same 
time,  should  not  permit  himself  to  be  unduly  hurried  in  his 
work,  as  the  value  of  the  “formal  report”  to  be  made  depends 


6 


upon  the  fullest  comprehension  of  the  matters  investigated ; 
take  time  enough  to  make  the  fullest  notes  of  all  conditions 
affecting  the  risk  and  influencing  your  conclusions  at  the 
time  such  matters  come  under  your  observation. 

While  there  has  here  been  given  you  the  merest  outline 
on  some  of  the  more  important  features  which  should  be 
considered  under  a  proper  treatment  of  this  important  sub¬ 
ject,  let  me  in  closing,  again  impress  upon  you  the  fact  that 
the  inspector,  because  of  his  calling,  has  no  inherent  right 
or  authority  to  enter  a  plant  for  the  purpose  of  inspection 
except  by  permission  from  its  owner,  nor  has  he  power  to 
enforce  compliance  in  matters  calling  for  changes,  improve¬ 
ments  or  betterments,  and  should  therefore  confine  his  crit¬ 
icisms  to  such  features  as  materially  affect  the  hazards,  and 
the  amendment  of  which  are  essential  to  approval  of  the  risk. 

All  necessary  criticisms  should  be  carefully  considered 
by  the  inspector  before  submitting  them  to  the  insured,  and 
should  be  presented  in  the  nature  of  “suggestions”  based 
upon,  accepted  good  practice,  and  in  such  manner  as  to  con¬ 
vince  the  insured  that  compliance  therewith  will  serve  his 
best  interests  in  the  prevention  or  control  of  fire,  making  the 
argument  “an  appeal  to  reason.”  When  the  conditions  crit¬ 
icised  are  such  as  to  seriously  jeopardize  the  safety  of  the 
plant,  and  immediate  compliance  with  the  suggestions  can¬ 
not  be  secured,  the  only  recourse  is  to  get  off  from  the  risk, 
and  the  insured  should  be  so  advised,  for  while  he  is  priv¬ 
ileged  to  “take  the  chances”  in  such  cases,  the  insurance 
company  is  not  obligated  to  do  so,  and  it  is  an  evidence  of 
sound  underwriting  to  avoid  any  risk  when  it  becomes  nec¬ 
essary  to  threaten  cancellation  in  order  to  secure  promise  of 
reform  by  the  insured. 

While  the  majority  of  men  resent  a  demand  to  do  any¬ 
thing  which  appears  to  reflect  upon  their  method  of  business 
practice,  almost  every  man  will  welcome  friendly  suggestions 
in  criticism  when  so  presented  as  to  carry  conviction  of  their 
feasibility  and  value  in  relation  to  the  betterment  of  his  own 
plant,  and  through  this  method  the  skilled  inspector  will 
many  times  succeed  in  securing  needed  reforms,  even  if  he 
represent  only  a  single  company  holding  liability. 


7 


Fire  Insurance 


Engineering 


AN  ADDRESS 


DELIVERED  BEFORE 


The 

Fire  Insurance  Society 

of  Philadelphia 


BY 

F.  M.  GRISWOLD 

General  Inspector 

February  21st,  1905 


(psq) 

[®sj 


THE  HOME  INSURANCE  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


“Fire  Insurance  Engineering” 


Mr.  President,  and  Gentlemen  of  the  Society: 


Permit  me  to  assure  you  that  -I  appreciate  very  highly 
the  privilege  of  appearing  before  you  on  this  occasion,  as  I 
hold  in  much  esteem  the  sentiment  and  purposes  that 
prompted  the  organization  of  your  Society  as  a  medium 
through  which  might  be  disseminated  information  and 
knowledge  of  great  value  to  its  membership,  whereby  those 
who  aspire  to  advancement  in  the  profession  of  fire  insur¬ 
ance  may  become  better  fitted  to  assume  and  intelligently 
handle  the  responsibilities  which  will  come  to  them  upon  the 
consummation  of  their  desires.  It  is  therefore  to  be  hoped 
that  those  who  have  the  opportunity  to  attend  your  proceed¬ 
ings  and  listen  to  the  various  papers  that  may  be  presented 
and  discussed,  will  seek  to  profit  by  the  instruction  thus 
imparted,  and  on  such  foundation  proceed  to  erect  a  structure 
of  knowledge  honorable  to  themselves  and  creditable  to  the 


purposes  and  efforts  of  your  Society  in  the  line  of  education. 

In  undertaking  to  address  you  upon  a  topic  so  broad  and 
inclusive  in  its  possibilities  as  is  that  of  “Fire  Insurance 
Engineering,”  I  fear  that  I  may  lay  myself  open  to  the 
charge  of  having  taken  counsel  of  temerity  rather  than  of 
sound  judgment,  for,  in  approaching  the  subject,  I  realize 
that  in  order  to  properly  present  any  one  of  the  many  phases 
of  this  new  profession  would  require,  and  also  warrant,  more 
time  than  can  now  be  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  the 
topic  as  a  whole,  and  therefore  crave  your  indulgence  if  I 
confine  my  remarks  to  the  outlines  of  this  very  important 
subject,  it  being  my  intention  to  leave  to  some  more  facile 
pen  the  task  of  elaborating  its  many  phases  of  interest. 

It  has  been  said  by  an  authority  on  the  subject  of  insur¬ 
ance  in  general  that  “fire  insurance  is  the  most  difficult  of 
the  main  branches  of  insurance,  on  account  of  the  constant 
and  rapid  changes  in  the  circumstances  which  cause  the 
hazard,”  and  to  those  of  us  who  have  kept  in  touch  with 
the  advance  in  methods  and  processes  in  both  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  industries  during  the  past  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years,  the  pointedness  and  accuracy  of  this  statement 
will  be  apparent ;  and  for  this  reason  I  trust  you  will  kindly 
bear  with  me  if  I  become  somewhat  reminiscent  in  attempt- 


1 


ing  to  make  clear  to  you  how  the  varied  changes  and  cir¬ 
cumstances  incident  to  the  growth  of  the  insurance  business 
have  influenced  specialization  in  practice  to  the  point  which 
marks  the  raison  d'etre  of  this  new  profession,  “Fire  Insur¬ 
ance  Engineering.” 

Going  back  now  to  a  period  in  my  personal  experience, 
which  if  nominated  might  seem  like  a  page  from  ancient 
history  to  some  of  my  hearers,  I  recall  that  fire  insurance 
was  transacted  under  conditions  which  can,  perhaps,  be  most 
aptly  described  bv  quoting  the  trite  aphorism  formulated  by 
the  late  Col.  A.  F.  Willmarth,  while  Vice-President  of  The 
Home  Insurance  Company,  to  the  effect,  that  “this  is  a  busi¬ 
ness  of  chances,  therefore  take  all  of  the  chances  you  can 
for  the  money  you  get,”  and,  unfortunately,  the  same  con¬ 
dition  of  mind  controls  the  action  of  many  companies  even 
at  this  date  of  advanced  knowledge  of  the  conditions  which 
produce  the  fire  hazards  against  which  the  profession  of 
Insurance  Engineering  is  supposed  to  strenuously  contend. 

In  those  early  days  the  profession  of  fire  insurance  was 
not  held  in  high  esteem,  and  the  field-man  was  usually 
classed  as  being  on  a  par  with  the  itinerant  lightning-rod 
vender,  notwithstanding  his  title  of  Special  Agent.  These 
early  types  of  the  insurance  inspector  were  not,  as  a  rule, 
charged  with  technical  knowledge,  but  working  under  the 
doctrine  of  the  aphorism  above  quoted,  they  made  no  effort  to 
inspect  a  risk,  as  that  term  is  now  understood,  the  chief  aims 
of  such  investigation  as  might  be  undertaken  being  the  size 
of  the  line  written,  sometimes  the  moral  hazard,  but  finally 
and  conclusively  the  query,  “will  the  rate  obtained  cover  the 
chance  of  loss?”  and  each  man  had  his  own  plan  of  guess¬ 
ing  at  the  adequacy  of  the  rate,  and  each  claimed  personal 
perspicacity  in  the  art  of  correct  guessing. 

This  “take  the  chances”  method  of  supervision  or  in¬ 
spection  of  risks  continued  to  prevail  for  many  years,  but 
without  demonstrating  either  profit  for  the  companies  or 
equality  in  the  ratings  of  similar  hazards  as  it  was  fre¬ 
quently  the  case  that  a  single  risk  would  be  found  written 
at  as  many  different  rates  as  there  might  be  policies  cov¬ 
ering  it,  and  not  infrequently  that  the  rates  of  one  company 
would  vary  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  policies  they  had 
applying  to  the  same  risk. 

The  absurdity  of  this  haphazard  method  of  attempting 
to  carry  on  a  financial  venture  so  important  and  complex  as 
is  fire  insurance,  impressed  itself  so  deeply  upon  those  who 
practiced  it  as  to  compel  the  admission  that  the  whole  system 
of  underwriting  was  simply  one  of  “magnificent  guessing,” 
and,  perhaps,  a  realization  of  the  degradation  of  this  high 
profession  to  the  level  of  the  speculative  spirit  which  formed 
the  famous,  but  not  forgotten,  “South  Sea”  bubble  episode, 
prompted  the  action  which  at  about  thi$  time  (1865)  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 


2 


writers,  the  organization  of  which  marked  the  first  success¬ 
ful  effort  to  bring  together  the  leading  insurance  companies 
of  the  country  in  concerted  attempt  to  better  the  conditions 
by  the  adoption  of  a  standard  form  of  policy,  and  to  cen¬ 
tralize  the  rate-making  power  within  the  control  of  a  single 
organization,  evidently  preferring  organized  “guessing”  as 
against  the  individual  and  sporadic  efforts  which  had  pre¬ 
vailed  in  the  past  in  the  matter  of  rates. 

While  the  methods  and  practices  of  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  during  the  time  it  continued  to  act  as 
an  authoritative  rating  body  cannot  be  said  to  have  estab¬ 
lished  any  of  the  principles  of  insurance  inspection  or  insur¬ 
ance  engineering  as  now  applied,  the  centralization  of  the 
function  of  rate-making  in  that  body  alone  served  to  mate¬ 
rially'  abridge  the  field  for  free-hand  rate  guessing  by  the 
special  agent  and  at  the  same  time  prompted  the  thoughtful 
underwriter  to  make  a  deeper  study  of  his  profession,  forcing 
upon  him  a  realization  that  perhaps  a  reduction  of  hazard 
through  betterment  of  conditions  in  construction,  processes 
and. fire  protection  might  induce  a  lower  loss  ratio  and  thus 
warrant  a  lower  rate  charge.  This  trend  of  thought  was 
doubtless  emphasized  through  the  fact  that  at  about  this 
period  the  New  England  Mutual  companies  (then  known  as 
the  “Manton  Mutuals”)  began  to  be  markedly  aggressive, 
and  their  methods  of  inspection  appealed  not  only  to  the 
good  sense  of  the  mill  owners  but  also  to  that  element  in 
the  stock  insurance  interests  which  had  reached  the  justifiable 
conclusion  that  all  fire  insurance  is  mutual  in  its  character 
and  that,  therefore,  any  means  which  serves  to  reduce  the 
fire  hazard  is  of  equal  importance  to  both  the  insured  and 
the  insurer.  In  other  wrords,  “what  is  good  for  the  insurer 
is  also  good  for  the  insured,”  for  the  reason  that  any  modi¬ 
fication  of  the  fire  hazard  tends  to  reduce  the  probability  of 
loss  and  at  the  same  time  warrants,  and,  usually,  should 
secure,  consideration  in  reduction  of  rate  to  the  benefit  of  both 
parties. 

This  partial  conception  of  the  absolute  mutuality  of  the 
insurance  contract  as  between  the  insurer  and  the  insured 
proved  too  radical  a  departure  from  old-time  stock  insurance 
practice  to  meet  with  general  approval,  but  it  may,  perhaps, 
be  truthfully  stated  that  the  honor  of  first  attempting  the  con¬ 
duct  of  fire  insurance  inspections  and  acceptances  on  these 
lines  by  any  stock  organization  can  be  ascribed  to  the  officers 
of  the  North  American  Fire  Insurance  Company  of  New  York 
(wrecked  in  the  Chicago  fire  of  1871)  at  my  suggestion,  in  the 
year  1868,  at  which  time  I  had  the  honor  to  represent  that 
company  as  its  assistant  general  agent. 

At  about  this  period  in  the  chronology  of  the  advancement 
in  fire  insurance  practice  occurred  that  wonderful  awakening 
in  the  applied  sciences  and  mechanic  arts  which  served  to 
revolutionize  old  methods  and  bring  into  use  new  combina- 


3 


tions  in  chemical,  general  manufacturing  and  mercantile 
methods  and  processes,  inducing  the  creation  of  new  and 
practically  unknown  fire  hazards,  which  placed  the  inspector 
who  depended  upon  the  “guessing  process"  of  rate-making 
as  related  to  fire  hazard  in  a  very  uncomfortable  position 
through  the  lack  of  that  modicum  of  technical  knowledge 
which  alone  would  enable  him  to  keep  pace  with  these 
marvelous  changes  in  circumstances  and  conditions,  and  this 
situation  of  uncertainty  on  the  part  of  the  inspector  as  to 
what  measure  of  hazard  might  be  provoked  under  these  new 
processes  and  methods  was  vastly  aggravated  by  the  equal 
ignorance  of  such  possibilities  upon  the  part  of  the  manu¬ 
facturer  or  other  insured,  whose  only  purpose  in  the  adoption 
of  a  new  method  or  process  was  the  hope  of  profit,  without 
the  least  apparent  concern  as  to  what  might  be  the  result  in 
the  line  of  added  fire  risk  until,  as  a  consequence  of  his 
temerity,  would  come  a  fire  of  supposedly  mysterious  origin. 

It  is  to  be  confessed  that  these  early  attempts  at  the 
betterment  of  physical  conditions  and  the  control  of  fire 
hazards  did  not  meet  with  immediate  and  cheerful  compli¬ 
ance  upon  the  part  of  some  of  the  insured  of  those  days, 
any  more  than  it  usually  does  on  the  part  of  the  same  class 
of  the  present  day,  but  the  measure  of  success  achieved 
served  to  encourage  continued  effort,  and  in  time  other  com¬ 
panies  took  up  the  idea ;  but  as  yet  there  was  no  concert  of 
action  in  such  matters,  and  the  progressive  special  agent  or 
inspector  met  with  much  opposition  from  the  manufacturer 
or  other  insured  in  his  attempts  to  develop  and  comprehend 
these  new  conditions  of  hazard,  because  every  one  who 
adopted  a  new  system  or  process  was  inclined  to  consider 
the  special  knowledge  thus  held  to  be  as  important  as  a 
state  secret,  and  strenuously  resented  any  attempt  at  inves¬ 
tigation  ;  indeed,  any  suggestions  for  betterment  of  conditions 
which  the  inspector  might  offer,  however  well  considered 
and  patent  they  might  be,  were  frequently  treated  with  con¬ 
tumely,  if  not  with  derision ;  hence  it  may  be  assumed  that 
the  lot  of  the  inspector  of  those  days  did  not  permit  him  to 
“wander  in  pastures  green  and  lie  down  by  still  waters,”  nor 
was  his  bed  always  one  of  roses. 

The  next  step  in  the  advancement  of  insurance  practice 
was  apparently  the  result  of  general  dissatisfaction  with  the 
somewhat  arbitrary  aggrandizement  of  power  by  the  Na¬ 
tional  Board,  which,  as  it  grew  in  strength  of  membership, 
assumed  to  ignore  both  the  local  agent  and  local  conditions 
in  the  matter  of  rate-making,  and  in  an  effort  to  ameliorate 
these  untoward  conditions  there  came  about  the  formation 
of  local  or  district  organizations  as  rating  bodies,  which, 
while  assuming  jurisdiction,  were  not  directly  affiliated  with 
the  National  Board,  and  these  bodies,  each  working  inde¬ 
pendently  of  the  other,  undertook  the  formulation  of  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  schedule  rating  which  was  supposedly  best  suited  to 


4 


cover  the  peculiarities  of  its  own  locality,  constructed  on  a 
broad  base-rate  for  specified  hazards,  with  supplemental 
charges  in  more  or  less  specific  detail  for  known  or  supposed 
hazards  of  processes  or  conditions,  and  these  specific  charges 
were  imposed  on  the  assumption  that  the  income  from  same 
would  cover  the  probability  of  fire  loss,  but  there  appeared 
no  intention  to  avoid  such  charges  by  counsel  and  advice  to 
the  insured  in  relation  to  the  elimination  or  modification  of 
the  hazards. 

Closely  following  the  inception  of  this  later  system,  and 
practically  conjunctional  with  it,  came  a  stage  of  progress 
in  the  practice  of  fire  insurance  which  was  based  upon  a 
deeper  appreciation  of  the  mutuality  of  the  obligations  exist¬ 
ing  between  the  insured  and  the  insurer,  which  should  prompt 
each  to  seek  means  for  the  elimination  or  minimizing  of  the 
probability  of  loss  by  the  exercise  of  proper  precautions  for 
the  prevention  of  fire,  rather  than  to  collect  compensation 
in  advance  for  unknown  chances  by  the  imposition  of  a  rate 
charge. 

As  a  result  of  this  awakening  to  a  realization  of  the 
high  plane  of  usefulness  to  which  the  profession  of  fire 
insurance  might  justly  aspire  as  the  conservator  of  public 
welfare,  there  arose  that  concert  of  action  between  some  of 
the  leading  insurance  companies  which  not  only  sanctioned, 
but  encouraged  the  formation  in  many  localities  of  bureaus 
and  associations  whose  functions  of  operation  were  not  only 
to  be  entirely  divorced  from  the  question  of  rate-making, 
but  were  to  be  specialized  in  relation  to  the  investigation  of 
the  fire  hazards  due  to  processes,  methods  and  faults  in  man¬ 
agement,  and  to  the  means  for  proper  fire  prevention  and 
fire  protection,  together  with  instruction  of  the  insured  in 
relation  to  the  most  approved  methods  by  which  these  ends 
might  best  be  accomplished  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  all 
at  interest. 

This  radical  departure  from  old-time  methods  neces¬ 
sitated  the  employment  of  men  as  inspectors  who  were  suffi¬ 
ciently  skilled  in  technical  matters  to  enable  them  to  not  only 
discover  hazardous  conditions,  but  also  to  be  possessed  of 
that  ingenuity  and  resourcefulness  which  would  permit  them 
to  intelligently  suggest,  and  if  necessary  personally  apply, 
the  proper  and  practical  remedy  for  correction  of  the  defects 
under  criticism,  and  while  it  is  lamentably  true  that  we  some¬ 
times  find  enforced  compliance  with  a  suggestion  for  sup¬ 
posed  betterment  which  does  not  appear  to  serve  its  proper 
or  intended  purpose,  owing  to  the  lack  of  practical  experi¬ 
ence  or  well-founded  knowledge  upon  the  part  of  the  in¬ 
spector  or  engineer  who  has  formulated  the  suggestion,  it 
may  be  justly  assumed  that  such  instances  are  the  exceptions 
which  serve  to  test  the  rule,  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
general  results  of  the  work  accomplished  by  the  skilled 
inspector  or  engineer  has  wrought  such  marked  and  sur- 


5 


prising  reductions  in  fire  hazard  and  promoted  such  changes 
of  value  in  relation  to  betterments  in  processes  in  manufacture 
as  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  through  skilled  inspection 
and  the  enforcement  of  well  considered  means  of  fire  pre¬ 
vention  and  fire  protection,  the  element  of  “chance”  in  the 
fire  insurance  business  may  now  be  considered  as  minimized 
to  an  extent  which  has  heretofore  not  been  hoped  for. 

All  of  the  teachings  of  history  admonish  us  that  the 
fruition  of  hope  for  the  betterment  of  the  condition  of  man¬ 
kind  is  the  result  of  difficulties  overcome  and  of  obstacles 
surmounted,  and  progress  in  the  advancement  of  the  practice 
of  fire  insurance  is  in  support  of  the  historical  precedent ; 
and,  while  it  is  perhaps  unwise  to  assume  that  complete 
fruition  has  supervened  in  our  profession,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  process  is  well  advanced,  and  as  a  result  there  has 
been  unconsciously  brought  into  being  a  new  element  in  that 
complex  organization  of  commercial  necessity  known  as  Fire 
Insurance. 

This  new  element,  gentlemen,  is  personified  in  the  In¬ 
surance  Engineer,  and  he  stands  before  us  to-day  almost  full- 
fledged  and  of  vigorous  action ;  but  who  may  nominate  the 
date  of  his  conception,  and  who  name  his  putative  father? 
His  birth  was  unheralded,  and  his  christening  was  not 
accompanied  by  ceremony,  song,  wine  or  merrymaking ;  he 
was  self-named ;  but  yet  it  is  no  disparagement  to  his  lineage 
to  sav  that  the  Insurance  Engineer  is  the  child  of  necessity. 

Having  now  traced  the  advancement  of  fire  insurance 
practice  from  that  period  in  its  history  when  its  methods 
were  not  far  removed  from  the  primitive  to  that  point  where 
more  scientific  methods  of  procedure  promise  to  place  it  on 
the  plane  of  exact  science,  let  me  submit  for  your  considera¬ 
tion  my  personal  conception  of  the  qualifications  necessary 
in  the  mental  and  other  equipment  of  the  man  who  aspires 
to  become  a  successful  Inspector  or  Insurance  Engineer,  and 
in  an  attempt  to  elucidate  this  problem  it  appears  proper  to 
begin  by  defining  the  meaning  of  the  terms  “Engineer”  and 
“engineering.” 

Each  of  these  words  or  terms  is  generic  in  character 
and  cover  in  their  application  a  wide  range  of  sub-division 
into  special  classes,  and,  in  considering  their  proper  defini¬ 
tion,  we  find,  by  implication  at  least,  that  those  who  assume 
the  title  of  Engineer  should  be  persons  charged  with  knowl¬ 
edge  and  skill  in  relation  to  the  principles  and  practice  of 
one  or  more  of  the  branches  or  departments  of  engineering, 
and,  therefore,  be  possessed  of  such  resourceful  ingenuity 
and  capacity  as  will  fit  them  to  plan  and  carry  out  the  details 
of  technical  propositions  to  successful  issue ;  hence,  it  should 
be  appreciated  that  the  title  of  Engineer  is  not  to  be  lightly 
assumed  by  those  who  lack  these  qualifications  of  knowledge 
and  capacity,  lest  when  the  crucial  test  comes  these  presump¬ 
tuous  individuals  may  find  themselves  abashed  at  the  dis- 


6 


covery  of  their  incompetence,  not  only  to  their  personal 
discredit,  but  also  to  the  disparagement  of  an  honorable 
profession. 

in  the  broad  field  of  nomenclature  of  the  arts  and  sci¬ 
ences,  that  subdivision  which  includes  the  comprehensive 
.term  “engineering,”  is  found  to  cover  many  special  branches 
of  the  art  of  interest  to  the  Fire  Insurance  Engineer,  which 
from  their  importance  or  inclusiveness  have  become  familiar 
to  the  public,  such,  for  instance,  as  civil  engineering,  chem¬ 
ical  engineering  (including  the  creation  of  many  new  prod¬ 
ucts  and  consequent  new  hazards,  due  to  the  electrolytic 
process),  electrical  engineering,  hydraulic  engineering,  con¬ 
struction  engineering  (including  as  a  specialty  fireproof  con¬ 
struction)  ;  heating  and  ventilation  engineering,  sanitary 
engineering,  municipal  engineering,  and  it  is  therefore  ap¬ 
parent  that  each  of  these  specialties  present  an  almost  unlim¬ 
ited  possibility  for  expansion  in  research  and  accomplish¬ 
ment,  and  that  each  of  the  experts  in  any  of  these  branches 
of  science  needs  only  to  devote  his  energies  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  his  specialty  in  order  to  almost  daily  present  to  the 
expectant  world  some  marvelous  achievement,  and  thereby 
confront  the  Insurance  Inspector  or  Engineer  with  new  con¬ 
ditions  in  methods  and  processes  which  will  tax  his  ingenuity 
to  properly  control  and  safeguard  against  the  probability  of 
fire,  and  this  result  can  be  attained  only  after  a  complete 
mastery  of  the  secrets  involved  in  these  developments  of 
scientific  research  and  varied  experimentation. 

This  citation  of  some  of  the  more  prominent  branches 
of  the  art  of  engineering  is  made  with  the  purpose  of  pre¬ 
senting  for  your  consideration  the  vastness  of  concentrated 
knowledge  which  must  be  attained  in  order  to  comprehend 
even  the  salient  points  in  the  various  divisions  of  applied 
science,  and  I  expect  that  I  will  be  considered  presumptuous 
when  I  maintain  that  the  requirements  for  the  possession  of 
knowledge,  skill  and  adaptiveness  which  are  requisite  to  fit 
one  to  become  a  successful  insurance  inspector  or  engineer 
are  fully  as  exacting  and  perhaps  more  inclusive  than  are 
those  which  are  deemed  necessary  to  fit  one  to  assume  title 
in  any  other  branch  of  engineering;  and  in  support  of  this 
assumption,  let  me  ask  you,  gentlemen,  what  general  or 
specific  qualification  of  fitness  which  is  considered  essential 
in  other  branches  of  engineering  may  be  omitted  from  the 
capacity  or  comprehension  of  the  qualified  insurance  inspector 
or  engineer  of  this  day  and  generation? 

The  profession  of  fire  insurance  engineering  is  yet  too 
young  to  warrant  the  graving  of  its  title  upon  the  entabla¬ 
tures  of  the  halls  of  applied  science,  but  let  us  not  therefore 
conclude  that  it  is  not  entitled  to  this  honored  distinction, 
for,  in  my  estimation,  it,  of  all  branches  or  departments  of 
engineering,  holds  within  the  broad  scope  of  its  warranted 
aspirations  of  accomplishment  the  possibility  of  proving 


7 


itself  the  wise  and  accredited  conservator  of  the  public  wel¬ 
fare  in  relation  to  all  matters  affecting  the  hazards  of  life 
and  property,  thus  performing  a  function  in  the  amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  mankind,  which  in  the  countries  of  the 
Old  World  is  rightly  assumed  to  be  a  measure  of  govern¬ 
mental  concern  and  control. 

As  the  field  of  operation  of  the  insurance  engineer  has 
become  expanded  and  its  value  as  an  entity  in  the  progress 
of  utilities  of  business  practice  has  become  more  highly  and 
properly  appreciated,  its  operations,  like  those  of  other 
branches  of  engineering,  are  being  segregated  into  specialties, 
the  elaboration  of  each  branch  of  its  application  commanding 
the  service  of  those  skilled  in  the  specialty.  Hence  we  find 
demonstrated  as  an  example  of  this  tendency  to  sub-division 
that  body  of  qualified  experts  known  as  “The  Committee  of 
consulting  Engineers,”  with  extensive  laboratories  at  Chi- ' 
cago,  where  all  classes  of  tests  and  e  tperiments  are  carried 
out  in  the  development  of  the  weaknesses,  hazards  or  good 
qualities  of  specific  devices  and  processes,  and  on  the  results 
of  these  tests  and  experiments  are  formulated  the  require¬ 
ments  upon  which  are  established  and  promulgated  (under 
the  sanction  and  approval  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters)  a  series  of  standards  authoritative  in  char¬ 
acter  and  of  equal  force  upon  underwriting  bodies  in  all  por¬ 
tions  of  the  country. 

In  addition  to  this  work  upon  the  specific  items  which 
go  to  the  making  or  the  curing  of  fire  hazards,  as  part  of  the 
work  of  the  Fire  Insurance  Engineer,  we  have  that  broader 
branch  of  the  profession,  which,  under  the  guidance  of  “The 
Committee  of  Twenty”  of  the  National  Board,  is  composed 
of  a  body  of  highly-trained  technical  experts  who  are  now 
very  thoroughly  investigating  the  conflagration  hazard  and 
the  conditions  of  water  supply  and  fire  department  efficiency 
in  many  of  the  leading  cities  of  the  country.  It  will  thus  be 
apparent  that  the  field  for  specialization  in  the  profession  of 
Insurance  Engineering  is  not  more  restricted  than  it  is  in 
other  lines  of  engineering  accomplishment,  and  that,  there¬ 
fore,  he  who  aspires  to  distinction  may  find  ample  scope  for 
the  exercise  of  his  faculties  in  the  development  of  that 
special  quality  of  recognized  capacity  which  most  strongly 
appeals  to  him  as  being  his  province  in  the  work  of  Insur¬ 
ance  Engineering. 

Having  now  broadly,  and,  I  confess,  very  imperfectly 
laid  down  some  of  the  qualities  called  for  in  the  equipment 
of  the  competent  Insurance  Inspector  or  Engineer,  it  seems 
well  to  give  consideration  to  the  question  as  to  what  are  the 
mental  and  personal  requisites  best  fitting  a  man  for  success 
in  this  new  profession,  and  it  can  be  said  primarily  that 
while  complete  technical  school  training  should  insure  to  its 
possessor  more  rapid  advancement  in  comprehension  and 
accomplishment  than  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  one  not  so 

8 


favored,  experience  has  demonstrated  that  such  endowment  is 
not  an  absolute  necessity,  as  some  men  have  succeeded  with¬ 
out  it ;  but,  gentlemen,  when  technical  and  scientific  attain¬ 
ments  are  secured  through  the  process  of  abrasion  and  attri¬ 
tion  in  the  hard  school  of  experience,  the  graduate  has  paid 
dearly  for  his  lack  of  earlier  training. 

Whatever  the  method  of  technical  accomplishment — 
whether  it  be  that  secured  through  early  training  in  a  school, 
or  whether  it  be  the  result  of  later  effort,  the  aspirant  for 
success  as  an  Insurance  Inspector  or  Engineer  must  be  en¬ 
dowed  with  a  broad  complement  of  common  sense,  an 
inquisitive  mind,  evidenced  by  a  desire  to  investigate  “Why 
and  How”  ;  a  constantly  receptive  brain,  a  retentive  memory, 
an  insatiable  thirst  for  the  absorption  of  knowledge  and  the 
possession  of  that  higher  faculty  which  will  enable  him  to 
be  an  imparter  of  knowledge,  a  teacher  of  those  less  thought¬ 
ful  or  less  informed,  and,  finally,  to  become  almost  an  ancho¬ 
rite  in  devotion  to  his  chosen  profession. 

Realizing  that  I  have  already  trespassed  upon  your 
patience  and  courtesy  to  an  almost  inexcusable  extent,  I  can¬ 
not  refrain  from  a  few  remarks  in  conclusion,  and  these  apply 
to  the  personality  of  the  Insurance  Inspector  or  Engineer 
in  relation  to  the  execution  of  his  frequently  very  trying 
duties.  Let  him  remember  when  he  enters  a  risk  that  “every 
man’s  house  is  his  castle,  and  he  may  defend  it” ;  therefore 
be  suave  and  gentlemanly,  and  avoid  the  arrogance  of 
assumed  or  presumed  authority ;  when  you  have  recom¬ 
mendations  for  betterment  to  offer,  let  your  method  be  sug¬ 
gestive,  not  mandatory ;  but,  above  all,  let  such  requests  be 
based  on  that  foundation  of  knowledge  and  practicability 
which  will  include  “both  the  law  and  the  gospels,”  and  there¬ 
fore  be  beyond  reasonable  criticism. 

Finally,  while  we  may  all  be  justly  proud  of  the  achieve¬ 
ments  thus  far  accredited  to  this  new  entity  of  Insurance 
Engineering,  and  some  of  us  may  ascribe  to  ourselves  a 
noticeable  credit  in  its  forwarding,  let  me  caution  you  to  a 
realization  of  the  fact  that  upon  each  of  us  rests  a  personal 
responsibility  to  make  good  the  future  conduct  and  record  of 
this  stripling  in  science,  to  the  end  that  its  achievements 
may  equal  its  opportunities  for  the  betterment  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  mankind. 


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